The Dramatic Roman Invasion Of Ancient Britain | The Roman Invasions With Ray Mears
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- Опубліковано 12 бер 2024
- In 55 BC, Rome had its sights set on Britain. Across two attempts, a huge invasion force led by one of the greatest miltary leaders in history, Julius Caesar, landed in Kent. Eventually he would break through and conquer the southern heart of the island.
It had not been an easy task. In his first attempt to conquer Britain, Caesar took with him only two legions, and achieved little beyond a landing on the coast of Kent. His force was heavily contested as soon as it landed on the beaches near Dover and had only managed to break inland through a combination of grit, determination and advanced military weapons and tactics.
Caesar's second invasion consisted of 628 ships, five legions and 2,000 cavalry. The force was so imposing that the Britons did not dare contest Caesar's landing in Kent, waiting instead until he began to move inland. Caesar's force penetrated into Middlesex and crossing the Thames, forcing the British warlord Cassivellaunus to surrender as a tributary to Rome.
Yet the great Caesar did not stay in Britain long. Instead, he returned to Rome in triumph, utilizing the success of his distant conquest to bolster his eventual dictatorship.
In this series, bushcraft and survival expert Ray Mears explores the surviving evidence we have of Caesar's invasions of Britain over 2000 years ago and then recounts the Claudian invasion of Britain in 43 AD and explores the ensuing Battle of the Medway in the lands of the Iron Age tribe of the Cantiaci. Featuring historians Dr Simon Elliot, Dr Steve Willis, Professor Matthias Strohn, and Roman reenactor David Richardson.
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History Hit please get more Ray Mears, he makes everything interesting and is the best presenter around these days. Especially for anything regarding the UK.
Really ... 😐
Absolutely, I couldn't agree more. I love watching his programmes.
Ray Mears is what Bear Grylls wishes he could be. Intelligent, thoughtful, actually knowledgeable, with useful information and guidance.
I'm all for Dan Snow and Ray Mears doing a three hour weekly podcast going through the history of Britain it could never ever get boring both fantastic and very knowledgeable presenters
@@Blisterdude123
I really don't care for "Bear Grylls"!!
He's like 'the little train who could' ...
("I think I can, I think I can"...but...
He can't!!) Ray Mears on the other paw, however, _is_ legit _the_ *real deal* & likewise I like Dan Snow, as he's also worth watching, imo.🤔🏴🙂❤️🖖
It’s great to see Ray Mears again, I’ve not seen him on tv in ages .
Honestly, I love Ray Mears what a legend.
It's amazing that Ray Mears is in this video, it brings it from a 8.5/10 to an instant 10/10 with the Goat of presenters. ❤
True. I'm glad to see Mears get some recognition and realising just how good he is at all aspects of presenting and presentation. It's so understated, it's brilliant.
Always a pleasure to view these documentaries. The content is first class, and the presenters radiate knowledge and enthusiasm. I would like to see Ray Mears present further episodes.
I'm really disappointed that there hasn't been an epic movie or series about the Roman invasion of Britain. It is probably the most important event in British history and not only that but it has all the characters to make it interesting like Julius Caesar.
Hollyweird has run out of ideas and remake old ideas yet there are 400 years of incredible historical events. War elephants charging at Chariots during the Claudian invasion, The Emeperor Severus epic northern campaigns of the early 3rd century from his base at York.
Constantius Chlorus marrying King Coel' s daughter Helena and producing Constantine the Great crowned Emperor at York.
Carausius rebellion with Allectus coming in with the plot twist.
There are countless possibilities. If only I could write scripts rather than talk bollocks on the internet.
The series Brittanica is very different but quality, nonetheless…
U even get Claudius on an elephant!
@@MarkAbRobert-jv6it not to mention Boudicca. I'd be more interested in a series where the native British tribes are the protagonists. The only risk is Hollywood and Netflix getting their hands on it and turning Caesar into a Mexican and Boudicca an annoying trans "Girl boss".
Boudicca would without a doubt be portrayed as a sassy strong independent wahman with a severe man hating streak due to her daughter's suffering at the hands of the rapey patriarchy. It doesn't even bare thinking about really
@@EstbXCIII History did a relatively decent “Barbarians Rising” series, but the Boudicca episode was painfully bad. I think I’m ok w hollywood leaving her story alone 😂
Love Ray Mears and his stylised, simplified way of delivery of history which draws you in and want to stay. Thank you Ray. ❤😊
A contested amphibious landing- one of the toughest military missions.
"Caesar’s first expedition to Britain had lasted about three weeks. Troops (“about 300”) from the two ships that had been separated from the rest were ambushed by Morini tribesmen. Caesar despatched his cavalry, who chased off the attackers. The next day, the legions just returned from Britain, commanded by Titus Labienus, marched against the rebel Morini, and most were captured. The rest of Caesar’s legions, which had been engaged in a punitive campaign against the Morini’s easterly neighbours, the Menapii, returned from their expedition. Caesar:
… quartered all the legions for the winter in the country of the Belgae. Thither two British tribes and no more sent hostages: the rest neglected to do so."
You can see why his troops followed him all the way to the stairs of the senate house, no man left behind.
I do wonder how contested the landing was the Britons had from dawn till 3 in the afternoon, unless they had their own intel, it would be just villages near the coast, that could be mustered as an ad hoc force.
Not if you don't care about the lives lost and you give orders from the comfort of safety far away from the battlefield
The UK has the best documentaries
I’d highly agree! Especially on such an amazing range of topics. Check some Martin Rees documentaries on futurism. You won’t be disappointed 👍
It's soooo good to see Ray again . Bring back Ray Mears bushcraft!
"But in a way that most many politicians aren't today. He had another quality. he was also a brilliant General" He was competent at the tasks he had to perform, unlike the vast majority of current ones.
Presume you’re referring to Julius Caesar. Undoubtedly the great man of his age, but I always keep uppermost in my mind how utterly ruthless and cruel he was, given to wanton slaughter, and above all, self-seeking and corrupt. Much like the rest of the Roman magnates. I think there’s been a tendency, going back to the days of Empire, for the British to identify with the Romans, that first great empire of the west, and to almost unconsciously imagine them to share all sorts of “British “ values and virtues. Explains some of the interest in Roman re-enactment. You’re not going to dress up as someone you regard as strange, foreign and nasty.
I have to agree with you on that point. Most politicians today have nothing but monetary interest and the taking of personal liberties away from the average citizen. Scotlands new laws are completely communist. People going to jail for acknowledging basic biology is insane.
Brits, let's talk about getting paid reparations.
We should sneak into Roman pizza making firms , and put pineapple on all pizzas . Reparation ,or what ?!
Quids in then. The South English can ask for something from Italy, Scandinavia, Germans, French, and the Dutch, and then hand all of it to Ireland, North England, Scotland and Wales.
@@redcaoimh3127 Seems only fair!
Hahahaha I'm Canadian I could ask the same from you but can't change history
@@redcaoimh3127the Romans never sold the English as slaves , the Romans came to Britain and civilised you animals , the English where uneducated couldn't read or write until the Romans came in and taught up , England didn't even have Roads until the Romans made them for you
Ray Mears, along with Michael Palin, is the greatest presenter of all time.
May suggest your assertion the “Britons” didn’t know what was about to “hit” it was wrong. Firstly the southern half of the British Isles had seen successive waves of movements of Celtic tribesman in the last hundred years previous to the first invasion of the Romans. The Romans had made conquests in the Celtic territory in “France” and the Britons had been aiding in resisting the Roman invasion around the “Paris” area and “Normandy.” Julius Caesar in his journals had written about these activities. The invasion of British Isles was partly in response to the Celtic assistance and partly because the Romans knew about the mineral wealth in these lands through long established trading routes.
Celt is a misnomer. It does have its use I suppose but as most people comprehend it,through a very warped idea that the "Celtic" Scot's and the "Celtic" Breton's are the same people with a shared history. is not helpful.
Those Celtic tribes you speak of who colonised England's south coast some century or so before Caesars arrival where Belgae. And they had been at war incessantly with the Bryrhonic tribes of the interior since their arrival. In my opinion this war was even fought over in Ireland during the 1st and 2nd century as tribes from Britain began to emigrate west due to the Roman threat but that's another story.
Other than my issue with that term Celt, I'm in agreement with you here.
The British chronicles (Brut y Brennihed) are seemingly unaware that there was any kind of oppostion at the beaches as the main army under Cassibelinus where further inland not knowing where Caesar would land, which suggests Caesars landing was only opposed by local levies. Caesar stated himself that a British parliament had elected Cassibelinus as General (Pendragon). Which also suggest the Britons did indeed know what was coming.
Thank you for this. I'm guessing as they were trading, word got around about the pesky Romans. 🤔😁
I’d guess the didn’t know what was going to hit it was due to the scale of the invasion by the biggest empire of the time, rather than the actual invasion
@@ThecrazyvaclavCaesar actually got his rear booted out of Britain more than once.
As the sayin goes, ‘Caesar loved invading Britain: it’s why he tried it more than once’.
@@megw7312 The Romans just tried twice. Caligulia had an idea to as well but he fell in love with the shells on the French sea shore and had all his soldiers collecting the. And I wish I knew why ! And what they did with them all 😊
All way nice to see Ray Mears in quality British documentaries.
Love Ray Mears, he make every subject interesting,he is a class act.
Wonderful video.Not a good day for the Britons when Rome under Claudius turned its full attention on conquering the island. The Roman army was a well organized, formidable opponent.
One of the most important events in history. It set off a series of events that gave us modern Britain. Britain gave us the modern world.
The opposite is also true
Not really. The clock was reset when they withdrew completely in 410.
@@hereandnow3156 Of course it can. There is the site of a Roman villa a quarter of a mile from my house in the corner of a field. There is another one a quarter of a mile further away than that. There is another site of a roman villa one mile in the opposite direction. NOTHING remains of any of them because around 500 AD Angles and Saxons killed and/or threw them out and in the following centuries all the stones were removed to build other houses. Nothing of their language remained either. The only remaining vestiges of Roman occupation are some roads and lanes which were probably pre-existing Bronze and Iron age tracks themselves.
@@robinac6897 You must be incredibly ignorant and/ or uneducated. They gave us new towns, plants, animals, a new religion and new ways of reading and counting. You are so wrong it’s laughable.
Cause and effect only works so simplistically in the tiny minds of insecure little Englishmen who throw off their greyness by living vicariously through their great nation's deeds
I loved watching Ray Mears as a child, he’s such a good story teller.
oh he tells a lot of stories for sure, mostly evolutionist fantasy.
@@user-sp3wd2nn3e if you’re a real person, you’re a failure of a human being.
That was great ...I learned so much more. Great Channel. Thank you.
"Caesar, sir. Our information on Britannia is spotty at best. We know almost nothing about these Britons apart from their hostility towards us. We have no information on a good place to anchor our fleet, the seas in the area are often tumultuous, we have no maps of the area, and we don't even know if the resources on the island can sustain our army."
"Sounds fun! All aboard!"
He was a pro gambler.
😂😂 Right.
😅😅😅😅
Celts, Romans, Anglo-Saxons, Vikings, Normans. I still find it amazing just how drenched in history Britain is. I don’t think many people know that Britain is even smaller than New Zealand.
England is only twice the size of Tasmania!
Britain has been multicultural since the beginning of recorded history. Celts, Romans, Saxons, Vikings then the Normans.
These groups fought each other over hundreds and hundreds of years in order to establish their rule and influence over one another. Once the Norman conquest had settled down, Britain held a very stable ethnic population for about 850 years. It is only very recently in history that the UK has willingly opened its doors to multiculturalism and mass immigration, and it's not working out great.
@@smiladon12These groups fought each other over hundreds and hundreds of years in order to establish their rule and influence over one another. Once the Norman conquest had settled down, Britain held a very stable ethnic population for about 850 years. It is only very recently in history that the UK has willingly opened its doors to multiculturalism and mass immigration, and it's not working out great.
@@AngloKiwithe british government are destroying England. Seems the wars never ended.
Hard to find something as well done as this to watch these days good job Ray proper enjoyed it
"A finisher offerer" romans had advanced in them 100 years. Cannot get enough roman stuff I love it ❤ thanks
Nice to see ray mears. I used to watch his tv survival shows frequently
Thank you.
I find myself routing for the Romans, and I'm a celt! This is so compelling.
Traitor.
@@cymro6537 I know, I know 😏
We know they were here but it slips into the back of the mind and when one is focussed on the details of it, it's _fascinating_ and awe-inspiring.
And I have to say, even more so as our ancestors were the ancient Britons (which I have to remind my Anglo Saxon friends; especially the xenophobic ones who think that the Knights Templar saw off the Romans. 🤔🤔)
@@ac1646 😊👍
Yeah. You couldn't decide between Hitler and western civilization either. Disgraceful
@@hmq9052 Bot; you're on the wrong comment thread 😁😁
Thanks you guys do history how it should be done. I can't say enough how much I enjoy your material
Thanks for posting
DAMN! - this is well done! ALL THESE videos are EXTREMELY well produced! I think I'm gonna join in - see what else they have! Few bucks for documentaries of this quality is no issue.
I remember everyone used to like a video theyve watched, the least you can do for a documentary of this quality. Great content, thank you
Great peice of work in explaing the Roman in vayion of Britain. I do like history and I will sing up to the history chanel, Bob England UK
Loved the sulphur dipped match 👍
it was the one single piece of information that I had never heard of before.....
I really enjoyed. this History Hit, will look forward to more.
"Caesar turned his back and fled in Terror the naked Britons he had come to conquer" Lucan (Pharisalia)
Lucan was a near contempory and his assessment of Caesars British adventure is indicative that not everyone was impressed by his supposed victory followed by sudden exit.
His first assault in 55BC was a complete disaster which he blames on misfortune amdbtje weather more so than his own underestimation of his opponent. A skilled general with a large well organised army. Caesar gives us an idea of how big by telling us that by the end of the summer campaign in 54BC the British Pendragon having allowed the largest part of his force return home for harvest still had something like 4000 charioteers at his disposal. Caesar also singles out the chariots for their skill and efficiency wjich again gives us an inkling that they where serious resistance for his legions. (This is why almost a century later the Claudian invasion included a detachment of war elephants specifically sent to counter the chariot threat to both the cavalry and infantry)
There is no doubt Caesar faired better on his second campaign having used to his advantage the schism of the civil war that had been on going for over a century before his arrival between the Belgic and Brythonic tribes. But probably not as much as he made claim judging by the way he abandoned the island having apparently subdued it.
Excellent work.
Good God, now I want to play "Rome: Total War" as either the Julii or the Britons. ⚔️🛡️🏹
This is such an interesting documentary. I loved that they had someone demonstrate using the weapons and armor. Very cool!
This is brilliant
Ray mears is an absolute legend. Spent my youth watching him on bbc 2.
History is amazing.
Bring back more Ray Mears please!!!
Nice one Ray 👌👌👍
You should do a video on the modern invasion of Britain....
Who? ThE ImMiGrAnTs? 🥴That's just british history for you. Neither the Angles nor the Saxons came from Britain either! And most brits probably have a little italian in them as a result of a century+ of Roman rule
@@karwashblark7499He's talking about the illegal immigrants (mostly Muslim young men )
The Romans left very little DNA in Britain - despite 367 years of occupation - an incidentally,most of the Romans who came to Britain weren't 'Italian'.
No we can be pretty certain the Romans left a negligent amount of DNA to us.
Like the Saxon after and the Norman later the Roman conquest was cultural rather than ethnic.
These people where all Indo European and related too unlike the hordes we see now from every godforsaken corner.
@@karwashblark7499 Is this your first time trying to draw a comparison between now and then?...trying to justify the unprecedented mass immigration into European countries? is "That just British history" ? Well, no..but, OK: *sighs*
-Those INVASIONS resulted in one of the greatest countries and largest empires in history, not a filthy third world country.
- The natives DEFENDED their land with sword and shield, against an enemy who invaded their country as a rite of conquest and openly declared war, blood was spilt for hundreds of years.
-And no, The Romans did not leave any significant genetic imprint upon the native population - unlike that the Germanic tribes, which was almost a complete replacement (initially)
- The common modern immigrant, who entered the country concealed in some-ones luggage to leach off the welfare system is incomparable to the Roman Legionnaire or Saxon warrior.
So, as you can see there are a litany of reasons why the use of history to justify immigration and cloak genocidal rhetoric will not work in your favor - the truth is OUR weapon, and we don't have a license to use it properly, yet.
@karwashblark7499 Romans weren't Italian. Yes, they settled there. But they weren't Italian 😅
Thank you
Excellent. Ray Mears strikes again!
Nice one Ray and team. 🌟👍
Amazing to watch
An excellent survey of the three incursions; the misunderstanding, that Julius Caesar had been intent on conquest, is often made, but not here.
Imagine that the romans saw the cliffs of Dover as we see them today
The chalk cliffs have been a feature of that coastline for millenia.
The Greek name for Britain (Albion - The white isle) was probably named so due to this very feature
Those were the good ol' days.
Very interesting, thanks 🙏
Oh Ray Mears! Love him:)
It was an informative and wonderful historical coverage video about Ceasar Julius' invasion of ancient Britain 🇬🇧... video shared by an amazing ( history Hit) channel
Love Ray Mears!
quality 💯💪🏻
I've watched Ray mears stuff since he first came out, I've not seen a bad show yet, cheers
You are so right in what you say , there is no free tickets in life , work for yourself and show purpose in life . This will bring you success and self worth , free is the path to a disastrous future
Well presented
I love how this LIDAR technology is almost like some magic crustal ball that can look back in time. Seeing these outlines , and being able to re-construct (in this case) Roman camps & fortresses on a 3d map is a gift for archaeology. Because if you stand there, there's nothing to see. In the past Archaeologist had to make guesses based on old texts and visual clues. Now LIDAR can be used to pinpoint the location, and that saves a lot of time. Especially when new construction or highway is being build, they only have a limited amount of time to preserve and document their findings before the bulldozers come .
imo the most impressive use of LIDAR so far is the uncovering of those massive Mayan citadels and ramparts etc, just the sheer scale of their massive constructions. It's completely changed the our understanding of what they were capable of, and est population figures have had to be adjusted as a result.
@@karwashblark7499 Yes , that's a great example. Especially because they were build in an area where nobody really expected to find much. Difficult to acces, not worth the trouble. Now we see this huge city state with hidden under the trees with LIDAR.
This video is a fascinating and informative look at the dramatic Roman invasion of ancient Britain. Ray Mears does an excellent job of bringing the story to life. I learned a lot about this important event in history, and I highly recommend this video to anyone interested in the Roman Empire or British history.
13:03 Seeing a pasty, out of shape, 70 year old man playing dress up as a Roman soldier and throwing a javelin as inspirational music plays is S-tier content 👌🏻
What gets me is that from a modern perspective looking back, the two invasions happened more less back to back, sort of WW1 to WW2 or Gulf War to Iraq War, but almost a hundred years passed for those doing it. Three or four generations. Imagine a hundred years passing and then deciding to invade a country again.
I ❤ Julius Caesar, and he was a GREAT stratetician, military general, and even politician. The thing I find interesting is even though archeologists consistently feel in many of these sites that they cannot find or unearth anything for proof or evidence, is because LOGICALLY centuries have past, and much of what might have been left behind has either eroded or were pillaged by the locals after Roman abandonment!
He was a tyrant and a war criminal but he was definitely a great strategist
F*** that invader, he enslaved and killed my ancestors, then went on to become one of the most despotic tyrants ever.
true. almost as much of a war criminal as boudicca. . . .
I mean, lopping off the breasts of women living in Londinium to then sew the mouths of those mutilated shut within their lopped off breasts somehow stuffed into their own mouths?
. . . .
. . . . that’s the sort of thing that makes Titus Andronicus look mild-mannered.
Caesar committed genocide and was a war criminal. He killed over a million in Gaul and enslaved many more during his campaigns. Not someone to admire.
Woo! Ray! Childhood hero that man.
As an ex royal marine. Its nice to get mentioned ❤
Brilliant. Best History Hit for a long time. Although I'd be very surprised if the meanders on the Medway haven't changed in 2000 years.
In fact, Caligula had begun preparations for an invasion of Germany, then of Britain; thus part of an invasion fleet had been prepared even before Claudius had become emperor in 41. The main spur to invasion was, undoubtedly, Claudius' wish to look more martial, but there were others: the Roman army garrisoning the Germaniae provinces at the Rhine was now too big and needed a purpose; there had been military mutinies among these legions before; two princely fugitives had laso arrived in Gaul, looking for help (they likely had potential allies on the island). The Narcissus story is worth chasing up, as it is funny.
Please do part 2 for the northern invasions
Love ray mears
no wayyyy!!!! I live really close to Kingsdown cliffs!
Love it
Ray Mears. What a guy.
Ray's obvious disappointment at the reproduction catapult's lame performance was hilarious!😂
This idea of two armies clashing into each other from a sprint is hilarious. Not sure what you expect people were back then, but mostly they were afraid for their lifes and wanted to get back home again. A Battle would be two groups in line, feeling for weaknesses in each others defensive live, trying to hit a foot or a head with a spear, behind shields. As soon as the formation fell, the battle was over. That is also why cavalry was so powerful, because it gave you the opportunity to break up enemy ranks by showing up behind or in their side.
Nowadays, the modern "Briton Chief" rolls out the red carpet, offers tea and crumpets, and benefits to ALL those surviving the Channel without a shot being fired.
cry about it
@@xtr3m3fLx
It's sad because the Romans ended up bringing improvements, where as Britain is now going backwards.
In 50 years Briton won't have any "Brits" in it.
Minority in your own Country. Sad
Good doc, that
good film
My pictish ancestors were Warriors through and through, and fearless.
Hence the expression 'know your onions'.
I do wonder how contested the landing was the Britons had from dawn till 3 in the afternoon, unless they had their own intel, it would be just villages near the coast, that could be mustered as an ad hoc force.
There is actually an account of the Caesar's invasion fromnthe British perspective believe it or not. It's contained in a 12th century copy of an 8th century text known as the Tysilio chronicle. Renowned egyptologist Flinders Petrie studied and analysed the work and declared it the most neglected book in British history.
In the account Caesar is referred constantly as "The bald man" 🤣
It Can be found and read pretty easy along with Petrie' s analysis ont' internet.
The pilum if it missed and hit the ground would bend, so that it could not be thrown back
Well , I would .
The guy dressed as a roman legionaire was having too much fun 😂
Probably in next episode when you do a visual, throw the pilum towards a real shield, rather than cardboard.
Great video.
First class narration, well presented.
can only take it with a grain of salt since its all speculation but it was a nice watch once again with Ray Mears. Just like to add, That ballista firing the onion looked a bit on the weak side. Only launched the onion a couple feet.
MORE RAY !!!!!!!
This was great! I had no idea the Emperor was actually with them. I just figured where his standard was taken, he was there so I thought it was more like an effigy. Wow!
Well , with them when the capitulation came !
Julius Caesar wasnt Emepror.
@@MarkAbRobert-jv6it They weren't talking about him then, wouldn't you think?
When I look out my window I`m 20 foot away from a Roman canal in the UK. The Oldest in the UK. Thank Rome. Sorry about making the A46 road bendy.
"You can subscribe RIGHT HERE...." Hahaha. Happens to the best of us.
ray Mears not getting older.
I get your point about the Pilum.
Har har.
Any chance for bushcraft/ survival videos with Ray? (New ones!) Granted that he's still into it!
The supposition that the Medway peninsula was a feature in 43 AD is engaging, but still very hypothetical, since the course of the Medway may well have changed in the intervening years, due to embankment works close to or at Rochester.
4:22 ... i'm guessing you WON'T point out that Caesars failure in conquering Britain is one of the VERY RARE times Caesar was DEFEATED
...also, the sword in the Coat of Arms of London, is Caesars sword captured in battle
That sword was known in antiquity as Yellow Death
@@MarkAbRobert-jv6itfun facts!
Errr but he didn't though as any historian will tell you.
He made an effort to push inland after his first disastrous attempt in 55BC. But he only managed to penetrate what is now the English south coast and in what was Belgic territory before very suddenly abandoning the island. His only spoils where a few hostages and a promise of tribute that never followed.
Not even he claimed to have "conquered" Britain.
Claudius is the man who's title was rightly given Britannicus.
@patrino objectively false
@patrino no he didn't, he INVADED, but didn't CONQUER ...leave intelligence to people with intelligence 🙄🙄🙄
This and the Euro 2020 Final.
Between Kingsdown and Sandwich bay was the landing spot? Possibly. There have been some brilliant pre and post Roman finds all around this area.
Landing was in pegwell bay on the Stonar spit when Thanet was an island. They found the landing fort in Ebbsfleet.
Ray mears!!
Do you have any videos on Star Forts that are in many areas and who built them. ?
It does know what's about to hit it, it knows exactly. Caesar has just subdued Gaul and Gaul is 23 miles from Britain! The reason the Britons were lined up on the White Cliffs is because they knew.