The F3 and FS700 are solid options, though the P4K is probably a better choice for most people. The RED One image is nice but its a heavy camera and again most people are probably going to regret not just getting a P4K. I personally got an F3 recently, better color, and a great HD 444 image with an external recorder.
Great video, Joe. I picked up a C100 in 2020 and it's such a great way to get familiar with cinema camera features. The 4k sensor produces fantastic-looking 1080 which upscales nicely as well if you need it to.
The one that makes sense from these is the BMPCC 4k, to be honest. Yes, some of the others have more buttons, but only shoot mostly HD. I'd say, that to shoot a film you don't need a cinema camera, you just need a camera that does the basics right. With audio recorded externally, something like the Fuji X-T200 for $500 with a lens and SD card (they were selling it like that recently on online shops, brand new), by using the Pro Neg. Std film emulation with contrast/sharpness all the way down (DR400 setting), will do the job. Get the 7Artisans 25mm f/1.8 manual lens for $75 too, a K&F variable ND filter for $22, and you're set. And if you can't afford that either, nothing beats the $150 Canon EOS M (non-Magic Lantern firmware) with that same 7Artisans lens. You can even get lights, mics and recorders, tripod, ND filters etc, all for $1000. A complete filmmaking kit for $1k.
You are absolutely right, you can get awesome pictures with almost any hybrid camera nowadays. But as I mentioned at the beginning, it's not about hybrid cameras, but cameras that either feature RAW-recording out of the box or have those great controls and features like internal-NDs or XLR-audio, which are key for many shooting conditions. If one doesn't need them, you can get great images out of so many mirrorless cameras. I don't know the T200, but what needs to be considered are the 30min recording limit and 2,5mm audio input. I also don't know about overheating, which can be an issue with small hybrid cameras. Thank you for your suggetion, seems to be a nice setup!
Yes the EOS M is truly the cheapest thing & amazing look out there, but the ML hack can drive you nuts, can be inconsistent. But it’s fun, cheap & the look can be awesome... you have to nerd out somewhat to use it.
The Sony F3 has a 2.5k sensor, so the HD is over sampled - it outputs 10bit 444 and is referred to as The Baby Alexa by a lot of DPs. We have two P4ks and two F3s... the F3s get used twice as often.
It matters little or not at all what camera is in your hand..it is just a tool. The question is what can you creatively do with this tool? There are creators that shoot absolute wonders on 16mm film cameras, not worrying about sensors, white balance or resolution. Similarly, there are short films that were shot entirely on iphone. Too much talk about the tools and no talk about the actual craft..
Still shooting with the Canon C100 Mark I for broadcast TV work, I deliver in XDCAM HD 4:2:2 50Mbit and they have nothing to complain about :) My next camera will be, I think, the C70. But not now. :)
I think it's amazing that this old camera is still so close in terms of image quality to the C70, when you take a look at comparison videos. But as long as 4K is not a must have, the C100 surely delivers. We are so spoiled ;)
@@tbip2001 no, I record internally. Just the final output of my timeline is 4:2:2 50mbit, of course a fake one since the chroma subsampling is still 4:2:0.
@@tristano1984 thanks for the reply. I'm trying to find an answer to whether the hdmi out on the mk1 and mk2 are progressive. The specs state 8bit 422 but only on interlaced. Theres.no mention of 24p progressive. Is this correct??
15:37 fwiw, super 8 doesn't have the same dynamic range as 35 film and 35mm film doesn't have more dynamic range than cameras today. They just handle highlights different but loses stops in the shadows in the process. If your camera has 13,5 stops or higher. You have more dynamic range than most filmstocks out there. There are ways to HDR scan film now. But that still won't give you 14+ stops of dynamic range you'll see in newer generation of cameras. Once a film has been printed for projection, there is only 8 or 9 stops left in the image.
Joe, thanks for the video. I have to say that I thought it was hilarious, because you kept showing me cameras and then telling me why I wouldn't possibly want to buy them. I found that very funny indeed. Keep up the good work. I am in the market for a camera, but I find that most of these can't even compete with the iPhone 14 that I have in my pocket. Amazing!
This camera is basically a rehoused GH4 but with true Cinema Camera capabilities, rolling Shutter is nasty but for. Cinematic shorts or even features is most definitely possible
Hey Joe. That was a wonderful video, much appreciated! I would just add some of the more affordable Lumix cameras might have been on the list as well. Like the G7 or G85.
Thank you very much. Both cameras are great cameras, but they are not on this list because they are hybrids and lack features like XLR or Raw. I will do a similar video on mirrorless and DSLR cameras as well.
No need to look further if you know about C100 , totally understand why you put it in the beginning of this list ) a truly remarkable camera which still holds up to modern standarts , I personally don't know anybody arguing about need of 4K in their cinematography , I'm glad that more and more people start to differentiate commercial videography and cinematography , a proper shutter angle , wide dynamic range and accurate colour science are far more noticeable than enormous resolution and tons of high framerate
BMPCC4K is the obvious winner for image quality and low light, supporting up to 4K unlike most in your list. Unlike the Super 16 size sensor on the earlier model, it's Super-35, so the crop factor is not a killer. The MFT mount is versatile, with many good cine lens options, but also a full complement of automatic lenses (which the Blackmagic cameras fully support). It's so much lighter than similar options, even if you might need an external monitor. You mention the far more expensive RED One, which comes with a learning curve and host of maintenance issues. I can't see this making sense when the BMPCC6K Pro exists. The Blackmagic has a bright tilt screen and built-in ND. With optional viewfinder it's still only €3100 new. (Granted: this model might not have existed when the video was made.) To be fair, you should distinguish more clearly between settings that require run'n'gun cameras (which is where your priority lies) and bodies that are designed for cinema settings where a rig is the norm. For example, the requirement of XLR inputs implies you don't mind compromising on sound, since any decent shoot will have a dedicated sound recordist.
I have three of the featured ones. Sony FS 100, Sony FS700 and Panasonic AG AF 101. Incidentally, not only the first ones, also the last one has good low light properties if it is set correctly. But you have to find that first. That is not easy and I needed time.
Never used it but from specs and reviews definitely a great allrounder. Shallow depth of field is harder to get, since the sensor is smaller, but if that's not important then it's a great camera I think.
I would have passed on the C100 M1 and only shown the C100 M2 - Under $1500 - Much better, flexible display, usable EVF, MP4, 60P. It's the camera at the M1 should have been. Now if only they would have given us 4k external.....
Where is this person getting his information from on these video Cinema cameras I check the prices and names of these cameras they are above $1000 they are not cheap no ?
I like this vid, i bet there are a lot of ppl like me who wants to get the cinema look but without the budget. So how about you make a new vid like this but this time, go for professional used camcorders. I for one don't know anything about lenses because I could never afford it and it scares me, a camcorder without interchangable lens seem safe, but now I know there are very good professional camcorders. should be a bunch 10-5 year old ones you could pick up cheap now?
I haven't worked with camcorders a lot for a while now, and I only want to talk about cameras I worked with at one point. Maybe I scrap together a video on that in the future, but it might not be as extensive as this one. Thanks for your suggestion!
Would rather buy a Sony FS7 (and I did!) than a RED ONE MX, for the same price cost. As it is a huuuuuuuge pain in the ass to shoot with the RED ONE (I know! I've filmed with it as well).
I would do the same, it's a better camera in most regards. Great camera, great recommendation. But since a new FS7 is nowhere near 1000$ (which was the premise of my video) it's not on this list.
No 4K is a killer for me, and for a lot of people, which is why they are so cheap. If I had to accept HD I wouldn’t spend a grand, I would save even more, and get a GH3, which sells for around $300. Not a true cinema camera, the output is very good, and its small size makes it a very useful camera that can work on a small gimbal. The GH4 costs a little more, but delivers great footage. They are a very practical options. My cinema camera is the JVC LS300 which can be bought new for way less than than the kitted out Red One (about 2,600 on B&H) and is still a brilliant option.
The GH3, GH4 and LS300 are all great, I would also recommend all of these cameras anytime. I also mainly use hybrids, but I excluded those for the reasons I mentioned at the beginning of the video. Many people, like Broadcasters, don't need 4K and most clients are still happy with HD. But some people who want to get serious filmmaking might need internal NDs or XLR-audio and better dynamic range. In this regard some cameras on this list tick many boxes that hybrids like the GH3 don't. The GH3 would need a lot of rigging and accessories to compensate for these drawbacks which negates the price advantage. I was very close buying the LS300 4 years ago but went for the FS700 instead for the better low light, external 12Bit-Recording and high frame rates. Comparing an LS300 to a Red One is a bit of a stretch, since the image and 12Bit-color on the Red is a whole different beast. But I still envy every LS300 owner. The layout of this camera is too nice and the MFT Mount on Super35 sensor is just brilliant. I would love to check that camera out some day. If I would recommend a cheap HD camera, it would be the GH2. Same sensor as the GH3, but only half the price for 150$. Only difference is the body and the 1080/50p. Imagewise they are the same. If 4K is a must the GH4 or GX85 are the best cameras for their price. Unbeatable performance for a nice price. 100% agreed!
@@TheBudgetFilmmaker I know the LS300 is humble in many regards, but I adore its light weight and small size and yet get footage that looks like much bigger cameras, and that combination of MFT Mount with Super 35 sensor is brilliant, and the Variable Scan Mapping is sheer genius. No other camera does Supper 35, MFT, And Super 16 all in the one camera :) There is very good reason why they still sell them after all these years. I still have a GH2, although these days it just gathers dust.
Wrong.. Wrong.. 11:25 the MFT is just 2x Crop factor... NOT 3x dont fooc!! ..but just most try the GH6 to learn what amazing image in low light conditions a MFT sensor in 2023 can do!! Can you listen yourselfe? ..Do you hear yourself? at 13:04 you say; "the best camera on the list in low light conditions" ..and is a MFT sensor.... Do you not notice your own contradiction?
You don't seem to know camera and/or sensor technology very well. Your tone is also quite rude, but I am here to help, so I will try to clear up your misconceptions: -MFT is a mount and a sensor size, but it doesn't have to be both all the time. The BMPCC has an MFT mount, but a Super16-sized sensor, which has a 3x crop. You can read the sensor size of any camera in their spec sheets. Any user of this camera can attest that it is not very good in low light. -The newer BMPCC4K is also MFT mount, but features a bigger and much newer MFT-sized sensor, even slightly bigger than most MFT sensors. This sensor has big sensels and therefore catches light much better, which makes it more suitable for low light. -I habe been working with the GH6 almost every day since it came to market and it a very nice camera, even in low light. Sensor technology has come quite a long way over the past 10 years. But every sensor is different is size and technology. You can't throw them all together and make generalisations about the quality. That is why we do camera tests.
![[UA] NAVI vs MOUZ | BO5 | IEM Rio 2024](http://i.ytimg.com/vi/CMBYk0cbGoA/mqdefault.jpg)
The F3 and FS700 are solid options, though the P4K is probably a better choice for most people. The RED One image is nice but its a heavy camera and again most people are probably going to regret not just getting a P4K. I personally got an F3 recently, better color, and a great HD 444 image with an external recorder.
Great video, Joe. I picked up a C100 in 2020 and it's such a great way to get familiar with cinema camera features. The 4k sensor produces fantastic-looking 1080 which upscales nicely as well if you need it to.
The one that makes sense from these is the BMPCC 4k, to be honest. Yes, some of the others have more buttons, but only shoot mostly HD. I'd say, that to shoot a film you don't need a cinema camera, you just need a camera that does the basics right. With audio recorded externally, something like the Fuji X-T200 for $500 with a lens and SD card (they were selling it like that recently on online shops, brand new), by using the Pro Neg. Std film emulation with contrast/sharpness all the way down (DR400 setting), will do the job. Get the 7Artisans 25mm f/1.8 manual lens for $75 too, a K&F variable ND filter for $22, and you're set. And if you can't afford that either, nothing beats the $150 Canon EOS M (non-Magic Lantern firmware) with that same 7Artisans lens. You can even get lights, mics and recorders, tripod, ND filters etc, all for $1000. A complete filmmaking kit for $1k.
You are absolutely right, you can get awesome pictures with almost any hybrid camera nowadays. But as I mentioned at the beginning, it's not about hybrid cameras, but cameras that either feature RAW-recording out of the box or have those great controls and features like internal-NDs or XLR-audio, which are key for many shooting conditions. If one doesn't need them, you can get great images out of so many mirrorless cameras. I don't know the T200, but what needs to be considered are the 30min recording limit and 2,5mm audio input. I also don't know about overheating, which can be an issue with small hybrid cameras.
Thank you for your suggetion, seems to be a nice setup!
Yes the EOS M is truly the cheapest thing & amazing look out there, but the ML hack can drive you nuts, can be inconsistent. But it’s fun, cheap & the look can be awesome... you have to nerd out somewhat to use it.
The Sony F3 has a 2.5k sensor, so the HD is over sampled - it outputs 10bit 444 and is referred to as The Baby Alexa by a lot of DPs. We have two P4ks and two F3s... the F3s get used twice as often.
Man I did my film school with Panasonic af100 but couldn’t remember the name. Anyway glad you mentioned it.
It matters little or not at all what camera is in your hand..it is just a tool. The question is what can you creatively do with this tool? There are creators that shoot absolute wonders on 16mm film cameras, not worrying about sensors, white balance or resolution. Similarly, there are short films that were shot entirely on iphone. Too much talk about the tools and no talk about the actual craft..
Still shooting with the Canon C100 Mark I for broadcast TV work, I deliver in XDCAM HD 4:2:2 50Mbit and they have nothing to complain about :) My next camera will be, I think, the C70. But not now. :)
I think it's amazing that this old camera is still so close in terms of image quality to the C70, when you take a look at comparison videos. But as long as 4K is not a must have, the C100 surely delivers. We are so spoiled ;)
Is that from the hdmi port?
@@tbip2001 no, I record internally. Just the final output of my timeline is 4:2:2 50mbit, of course a fake one since the chroma subsampling is still 4:2:0.
@@tristano1984 thanks for the reply. I'm trying to find an answer to whether the hdmi out on the mk1 and mk2 are progressive.
The specs state 8bit 422 but only on interlaced.
Theres.no mention of 24p progressive.
Is this correct??
15:37 fwiw, super 8 doesn't have the same dynamic range as 35 film and 35mm film doesn't have more dynamic range than cameras today. They just handle highlights different but loses stops in the shadows in the process. If your camera has 13,5 stops or higher. You have more dynamic range than most filmstocks out there. There are ways to HDR scan film now. But that still won't give you 14+ stops of dynamic range you'll see in newer generation of cameras.
Once a film has been printed for projection, there is only 8 or 9 stops left in the image.
Joe, thanks for the video. I have to say that I thought it was hilarious, because you kept showing me cameras and then telling me why I wouldn't possibly want to buy them. I found that very funny indeed. Keep up the good work. I am in the market for a camera, but I find that most of these can't even compete with the iPhone 14 that I have in my pocket. Amazing!
Great info for new folks !!
Still rocking my FS700 in 2021!
ZCAM E2C is $800 US brand new.
True that, a great camera for the price from what I have heard.
This camera is basically a rehoused GH4 but with true Cinema Camera capabilities, rolling Shutter is nasty but for. Cinematic shorts or even features is most definitely possible
Thanks, You got my support as usual.
One brand recent model with 8k res cant beat the 2k of the eos c 100.
Its about the image.
The autofocus of eos c is a keeper.
Hey Joe. That was a wonderful video, much appreciated! I would just add some of the more affordable Lumix cameras might have been on the list as well. Like the G7 or G85.
Thank you very much. Both cameras are great cameras, but they are not on this list because they are hybrids and lack features like XLR or Raw. I will do a similar video on mirrorless and DSLR cameras as well.
Great presentation, plz advice me best camera for wedding videography under 1500 US$, new or used one, plz reply.
Do not forget Zcam E2 👍
Hi, I need used red camera in New York .Can you help me.
No need to look further if you know about C100 , totally understand why you put it in the beginning of this list ) a truly remarkable camera which still holds up to modern standarts , I personally don't know anybody arguing about need of 4K in their cinematography , I'm glad that more and more people start to differentiate commercial videography and cinematography , a proper shutter angle , wide dynamic range and accurate colour science are far more noticeable than enormous resolution and tons of high framerate
Would chose fs700 over c100 10 out of 10 times.
right but some clients want 4k.
Great list! Thank you!
Thanks, glad you liked it!
AF100 was used in The Raid: Redemption
Ed snowden does a good accent.
Love my c100! I still pay a large portion of my rent with it.
loved your 4000$ income video lol
Still love my C100 M2 also
Original BMPCC still rocks oh boi. Used with cage and power accessories can get as low as 300 bucks if you're lucky!
Yeah if you are lucky the BMPCC is an awesome steal. But prices are going up lately, since many people seem to rediscover this gem.
Sony FS100 has excellent color rendition, same with the F3.
Absolutely, great out of the box image and awesome low light performance.
BMPCC4K is the obvious winner for image quality and low light, supporting up to 4K unlike most in your list. Unlike the Super 16 size sensor on the earlier model, it's Super-35, so the crop factor is not a killer. The MFT mount is versatile, with many good cine lens options, but also a full complement of automatic lenses (which the Blackmagic cameras fully support). It's so much lighter than similar options, even if you might need an external monitor.
You mention the far more expensive RED One, which comes with a learning curve and host of maintenance issues. I can't see this making sense when the BMPCC6K Pro exists. The Blackmagic has a bright tilt screen and built-in ND. With optional viewfinder it's still only €3100 new. (Granted: this model might not have existed when the video was made.)
To be fair, you should distinguish more clearly between settings that require run'n'gun cameras (which is where your priority lies) and bodies that are designed for cinema settings where a rig is the norm. For example, the requirement of XLR inputs implies you don't mind compromising on sound, since any decent shoot will have a dedicated sound recordist.
The P4k has a four thirds sensor, not S35. The P6k has a S35 sensor.
I have three of the featured ones. Sony FS 100, Sony FS700 and Panasonic AG AF 101. Incidentally, not only the first ones, also the last one has good low light properties if it is set correctly. But you have to find that first. That is not easy and I needed time.
Great video , I have a question BMPCC OG is record 2,8k in raw DNG ? Or 1080p ?
Thanks! No the BMPCC OG is 1080 only, the BMCC is the one that records 2.5k DNGs.
The Red One does not belong in this video. So don't tell us about honorable mention, it's simply out of the price range of these under $1000 boxes.
What you think of the Sony AX 700? Thanx
Never used it but from specs and reviews definitely a great allrounder. Shallow depth of field is harder to get, since the sensor is smaller, but if that's not important then it's a great camera I think.
Cant call a broadcast camera which the BM Micro is a cinema camera, most of these are just eng or regular proffesional video cameras
Nice!!!!
Thanks!
Nice video. ❤
I would have passed on the C100 M1 and only shown the C100 M2 - Under $1500 - Much better, flexible display, usable EVF, MP4, 60P. It's the camera at the M1 should have been. Now if only they would have given us 4k external.....
Raw?
What camera did you use to film this video
I use a Panasonic GH5 in all my videos.
You can get a Sony f5 fully upgraded for under 3k
Where is this person getting his information from on these video Cinema cameras I check the prices and names of these cameras they are above $1000 they are not cheap no ?
There's no sensor in a super 8 film canera!!!
V good video, plz advice me any second hand camera for wedding videography under 700$, plz reply.
Panasonic G85 or GH4 are great and cheap second hand. Used them professionally for wedding videography.
@@TheBudgetFilmmaker thank you so much.
My perfect camera would be:
MFT-Mount
4k 8bit 60fps internal
4k 10bit 4:2:2 Cinema 4K
1080p from 120fps
Internal NDs
XLR Input with 48V Phantom Power
The GH5 and GH6 tick all those boxes except the lacking internal ND. That would be really nice to have.
BGH1
I like this vid, i bet there are a lot of ppl like me who wants to get the cinema look but without the budget. So how about you make a new vid like this but this time, go for professional used camcorders. I for one don't know anything about lenses because I could never afford it and it scares me, a camcorder without interchangable lens seem safe, but now I know there are very good professional camcorders. should be a bunch 10-5 year old ones you could pick up cheap now?
I haven't worked with camcorders a lot for a while now, and I only want to talk about cameras I worked with at one point. Maybe I scrap together a video on that in the future, but it might not be as extensive as this one. Thanks for your suggestion!
Thank you for this list!!! Helped a lot!!!
Glad to hear that I could help. :)
I got my f3 for $500 with a microphone included.
See I like this dude he got all parts of the videos orginized so I can just get to the point
Would rather buy a Sony FS7 (and I did!) than a RED ONE MX, for the same price cost. As it is a huuuuuuuge pain in the ass to shoot with the RED ONE (I know! I've filmed with it as well).
I would do the same, it's a better camera in most regards. Great camera, great recommendation. But since a new FS7 is nowhere near 1000$ (which was the premise of my video) it's not on this list.
No 4K is a killer for me, and for a lot of people, which is why they are so cheap. If I had to accept HD I wouldn’t spend a grand, I would save even more, and get a GH3, which sells for around $300. Not a true cinema camera, the output is very good, and its small size makes it a very useful camera that can work on a small gimbal. The GH4 costs a little more, but delivers great footage. They are a very practical options.
My cinema camera is the JVC LS300 which can be bought new for way less than than the kitted out Red One (about 2,600 on B&H) and is still a brilliant option.
The GH3, GH4 and LS300 are all great, I would also recommend all of these cameras anytime. I also mainly use hybrids, but I excluded those for the reasons I mentioned at the beginning of the video. Many people, like Broadcasters, don't need 4K and most clients are still happy with HD. But some people who want to get serious filmmaking might need internal NDs or XLR-audio and better dynamic range. In this regard some cameras on this list tick many boxes that hybrids like the GH3 don't. The GH3 would need a lot of rigging and accessories to compensate for these drawbacks which negates the price advantage.
I was very close buying the LS300 4 years ago but went for the FS700 instead for the better low light, external 12Bit-Recording and high frame rates. Comparing an LS300 to a Red One is a bit of a stretch, since the image and 12Bit-color on the Red is a whole different beast. But I still envy every LS300 owner. The layout of this camera is too nice and the MFT Mount on Super35 sensor is just brilliant. I would love to check that camera out some day.
If I would recommend a cheap HD camera, it would be the GH2. Same sensor as the GH3, but only half the price for 150$. Only difference is the body and the 1080/50p. Imagewise they are the same. If 4K is a must the GH4 or GX85 are the best cameras for their price. Unbeatable performance for a nice price. 100% agreed!
@@TheBudgetFilmmaker I know the LS300 is humble in many regards, but I adore its light weight and small size and yet get footage that looks like much bigger cameras, and that combination of MFT Mount with Super 35 sensor is brilliant, and the Variable Scan Mapping is sheer genius. No other camera does Supper 35, MFT, And Super 16 all in the one camera :) There is very good reason why they still sell them after all these years. I still have a GH2, although these days it just gathers dust.
So true! I hope you create many stunning images with your tool. I will have to check the camera out some day.
Bmpcc is a special camera
Sigma FP?
BM Ursa 4K v1
its not a cinema camera until you make a film with it.
youtube videos don't count.
I use Samsung Nx1 😉
Must... talk... faster! Other than that solid video :)
Berlinverbot
I need something better them my GoPro. lol
stop any nonsense. AI AF.
Ein Macher
Canon C100 not mark I, just C100. There is only "Mark II" term like second edition. Mark I doesn't exist.
Yes but people commonly say that to differentiate first gen products.
Hate these youtubers who bait you in by their title names...smh..very few are like that..
du klingst als köntest du deutsch
dear video bloggers!
I don't want to see your faces! i want to see your camcorders!
especially since your faces have not been shaved for a month!
Wrong.. Wrong.. 11:25 the MFT is just 2x Crop factor... NOT 3x dont fooc!! ..but just most try the GH6 to learn what amazing image in low light conditions a MFT sensor in 2023 can do!! Can you listen yourselfe? ..Do you hear yourself? at 13:04 you say; "the best camera on the list in low light conditions" ..and is a MFT sensor.... Do you not notice your own contradiction?
You don't seem to know camera and/or sensor technology very well. Your tone is also quite rude, but I am here to help, so I will try to clear up your misconceptions:
-MFT is a mount and a sensor size, but it doesn't have to be both all the time. The BMPCC has an MFT mount, but a Super16-sized sensor, which has a 3x crop. You can read the sensor size of any camera in their spec sheets. Any user of this camera can attest that it is not very good in low light.
-The newer BMPCC4K is also MFT mount, but features a bigger and much newer MFT-sized sensor, even slightly bigger than most MFT sensors. This sensor has big sensels and therefore catches light much better, which makes it more suitable for low light.
-I habe been working with the GH6 almost every day since it came to market and it a very nice camera, even in low light. Sensor technology has come quite a long way over the past 10 years. But every sensor is different is size and technology. You can't throw them all together and make generalisations about the quality. That is why we do camera tests.