Towers of the North: The Brochs of Iron Age Scotland (3000 BC - 200 AD)
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- Опубліковано 29 чер 2024
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I AM LITERALLY WEARING MY BROCH T SHIRT RIGHT NOW, LOOKING AT THE MOST NORTHERLY POINT IN MAINLAND BRITAIN
There's also a suspected broch site just down the road from me
Many Thanks from a fellow 1/8th Scottish descendant!
A great cause to be supporting! I like the idea of English folk paying to build an authentic replica Scottish stone structure. Metaphorically, it could be thought of as Scone Guilt money. ;D
I would shorten the intro of the video. Get rid of the Julia's Ceasar stuff for certain, it's a little dodgy
I came to this video after watching a video on Hadrians wall by History channel where one "expert" describe what must have been going through the Barbarians minds when they saw Hadrians wall and thought it must been built by Aliens. There was no one mentioning that these "Barbarians" had been building giant stone buildings for thousands of years.
Pontusky You expose the arrogance of these experts expertly!
That is not a real history channel, american conspiracy channel - you realise the romans built both walls ? (well they got slaves to do the heavy lifting) - Antonine's Wall is further north than Hadrian's. Do any roman historians mention these massive stone buildings in the far north, or the western isles or, Orkney ? I'd have thought Caeser or Tacitus might have wrote down something about them
Barbarian? Cheeky bastard we are pict's no barbarians
@@jasonpaterson8463 love how they claim our artistry as well
@@johnmaclagan2263 Anything written by the victors in any conflict is likely to be dubious source material, Caesar in particular is renowned for the embellishment of his deeds. The "four Triumphs" of 46 BCE are a good example. One, (Gaul) was legit, the others were granted to placate his ego and resulted in riots. Anything written by his contemporaries are equally likely to be unreliable, it would be the same as expecting Ivana Trump to produce a balanced critique of her megalomaniacal father's disastrous presidency. As an Irishman with a keen interest in pre- Roman Britain and Ireland, I find this channel to be well researched and more up to date than all but the most recent books on the subject.
I spent a week camping up the west coast of Scotland a few years back. Including a couple of nights on the Isle of Skye. I saw and explored a Brock on the coastline. It was in ruins, only a few feet of stone remained and i didn't really understand what i was looking at. I thought it was a small castle of some kind as the layout confused me. Now i understand what it was...so thank you. Scotland is a deeply mystical and beautiful country.
Yes, it is - thank you for noticing. FYI despite the illiterate doing the voice-over spreading incorrect info, it's not a BROCK with a hard 'K' sound, it's a BROCH with a long, soft, Scots 'ch' sound - as also found in Loch (ie not an English 'ch' as in 'chip' either lol). Imho they served the same purposes as castles, roundhouses, longhouses to their small communities - part to show status of the laird or equivalent, part a community congregation point & part security - a lookout & defence against raiders.
@@joannecarroll5504 Well thank you for noticing my post Joanne. Being from London I thought everyone would hate me in Scotland. I could not have been more wrong. Not only was the country beautiful, the people I met were even more so. Thank you for explaining how to pronounce a Broch properly. I meant what I said, Scotland is amazing. I can't put finger on it, but I think you have to go and spend time in the lowlands and highlands to get it....which you obviously do. Peace to ya my Scottish friend.
The broch just South of Glen Elg, with it’s double walls, is in a remarkable state of preservation.
Not often do I see videos about Scotlands ancient history & I learnt something new about my land. Thank you for covering this.
Honestly I think it's because there isn't too much to be able to say about it as a lot is speculation. I'm also Scottish though and it is good to see something about life in the furthest north of Scotland and not just up to the central belt
Why couldn't I have seen this video 2 years ago?!? I would have gladly donated to Let's build a Broch project! :(
Good brochs make good neighbors, and good Scottish History videos keep Cumbria and Carlisle safe for another spring. We accept this excellent video in lieu of this year's cattle protection payment.
You’re like a historian wrapped in a geek and encased in solid nerd....I salute you sir
Don't reneg or it's your women.
ArchEnema 67
Who let you off your chain!?? Are you negotiating for all of Scotland or just your clan?
Yes😊
Can't even watch this video...Northern Britian...gag...May the Scots rise again.
It took me to about the 3 min mark to realise this wasn't a professional production. That's quite impressive.
If is a professional production I think this guy has earned that title
its an impressive statement of human nature that people can survive and flourish even in some of the more remote and barren land out there.
Absolutely. It's always inspiring to see people living in the most extreme conditions.
They were Israelites who spread everywhere, elite adventurers (not jews)
I'm wondering what they burned for firewood where there is no wood...
@@rawnukles there was woods once in ancient times. some say that they burned the woods to destroy the habitat for wolves. Today we burn peat, and there is also wood btw
Flash Point History it’s easier that way.. you are away from people.. survive and it makes you strong.. .. love from Wild West, America
Fascinating topic I knew practically nothing about.
Thanks for watching!
it did that what the Romans called it.
Finally someone in the comments section who isn't an armchair know-it-all. I didn't know any of this either. I did come here from a Time Team video about digging a broch in Applecross. You might enjoy that Artur. I did.
Ditto! Always enjoy new, fascinating things I've never heard of.
I knew of them, knew nothing abouy them at all. Not 1 thing but their name and that they are old. Love the video.
I never was into history, but I find your voice, the music and the footage very calming! Thanks! I watched them all 3x each
Brilliant video and project! The north of Scotland has a really fascinating prehistory.
Thanks man! Little bit of Neolithic stuff in there to keep you happy 😁
@@HistoryTime have you Ever consider to talk about osirion ?
Thank you Stefan! Please do consider donating to our 'wee' project - www.crowdfunder.co.uk/lets-build-a-broch
Every little helps :)
@ᚱᛰႮᛠᕮᚱ ᚦAᕮᛖᛰᚤ Yes, we do.
I've never gone on holiday to hear a language, I don't know anyone who has (other than those who might want to go there to practice)
The cultural identity of Caithness is at a cultural crossroads - in terms of language, there is Gaelic, Scots and Norse. Norse died out a long time ago, before Gaelic, but Norn was spoken up until the 18th/19th century, and you can hear elements of Norse language in the latter-day Caithness language (and accent). Gaelic was spoken in the area, too, certainly more in the 'interior'. Scots would have been prevalent, however, for most. So learning the language of our 'great grand parents' is not so clear-cut.
What we do have, however, is the chance to celebrate something truly monumental and exciting (wouldn't you be a little proud of a broch?) and universal. Brochs were here long before we were speaking Gaelic, Scots, Norse or English. Let's focus on something we can all share in.
Not sure what you mean by 'privileged jamboree Commonwealth students', and we wouldn't be paying for their accommodation anyway (people flock from all over the world to participate in digs at Ness of Brodgar, for example) so we think that our wee archaeological experiment would pull in money and investment for businesses in the local area.
Sorry, missed this - but there are many drystone walls in the county (and in Scotland) and lots of people have them installed as they like the aesthetic appeal of these walls. So there definitely is still a 'want' for people with these skills!
I just saw that Scotland is building a new Broch! I hope you will keep us up to date!
"Shes got large tracts of land!" I think of Monty Python every time you say Tracts of land haha
Huuuge...
Simon ,you are Sharp . ha ha
I thought exactly the same thing.
What's not to like about her...
lol
I’d never even heard of a Broch before tonight. That was excellent, thanks
He missed out Glenelg there are 3 Brochs there 😊
Those of us in the States who are not Native American can only marvel at histories much older than ours. Thank you for this excellent presentation.
Are you an alien ???
No? Then this is your history as well. Why do you americans stick with the dumbed down version you get at school ! The s**t you are force fed about patriotism & #1USA is to enslave you. Look at the narrow viewed statement you made. Go wake up and discover truth.
@@neilmarshall5087 I agree the American education system leaves a LOT to be desired because I lived in Europe for three years in the 1950s, Taiwan for two years when I was older and Thailand when I was in the military. So I haven't exactly been living under a rock. And I agree that many (but not all of course) Americans are arrogant, pushy and have an obnoxious feeling of entitlement. I am NOT a flag waving patriot by any means. You know nothing about me but just assumed my views are ignorantly narrow, so there was no need for a personal attack. Have a nice day.
Hmm, does the position of the hearth in the center need to be spiritual or religious? Isn't that the most efficient place for a fire to heat the entire building? It would function just like a huge stone tee pee and its central fire. And just like a tee pee it might be why they're round, for efficient heating... especially in a place that's cold and poor in fuel sources.
I agree, valid points
I agree also, it's just like a multi-story round house. Fire in the middle because it's more efficient. Dirt in the core of the 2 face walls would help with insulation. The same way later Castle's built for strength. Once the roof is gone, rain would wash the dirt out. Moss packed between the stones would seal the passageways and cut down airflow. What would science find a thousand years later? Rocks, dirt and moss... Correct me if I'm wrong, but isn't that what they did find??? Religious is just a catch phrase the learned throw out to sound smart.
Well, this is what we're hoping our project might try and answer. There are so much about brochs that we just dont understand.
So please do consider donating to our 'wee' project - www.crowdfunder.co.uk/lets-build-a-broch
Every little helps :)
Cheers!
Also when it to design and layout, a circular structure is the easiest to build.
All you need is a stick ln the centre and a rope.
For a square you need two sides and a diagonal.
If you want a hundred square metres house it takes fewer stones in a circle than a square
My thought as well
Love, love, love your videos on Britain and Northern Europe. Each one teaches me something I’d never known before. Thank you for all the time and resources you put into them.
a great way to start the weekend, with History Time
Thanks for watching! :)
I can imagine you were very comfortable while watching this video while outside was raining snow and you were at home all comfy with a cup of tea and a warm blanket watching this edition of History Time.
Those Brochs must have been a nightmare to carpet! Never mind where to position your sofa and tv!
Great video by the way, excellently produced.
This is why They got out and cultivated an extraordinary society
I've been to Shetland 3 times and now am SO regretting that I didn't have a look. I'm planning to go next year, this will be on my itinerary!
They are a must see :)
They really are Monique - this is from a Shetlander
Edit - Clickamin is in the town. No excuses :p
Monique Boonstra you must go back Shetland is a truly magical place. I tell anyone and everyone GO to Shetland I love it
This was remarkable! I'm going to watch it a second time. Every video you make is fascinating to me, but as I said, this was just remarkable. Thank you for enriching my life with your productions.
Learn something new everyday!!! I did not know about the brochs, but will find out more....just recently discovered the treasure trove of Neolithic archeology of northern Britain and the isles.
Again, an impressive production. 💚 I love the beautiful footage you included, and that you're supporting this amazing project.
Thank you!!! 🌎
Thanks Erin! Please do consider donating to our 'wee' project - www.crowdfunder.co.uk/lets-build-a-broch
Every little helps :)
Wish you could hear my vibrant applause! Bravo. Seen it several times now, but I learn something every time. Thanks Pete!
As someone with Scots ancestors (McCown- Ross- Frazier), this is fascinating and so well edited and narrated. I love your channel - it's my new fascination. Thank you!
As a proud member of Clan Ross of East Central TN & NE AL in the U.S., I always love watching the history of my people. Thank you for uploading this!!! I really enjoyed it.
Been to the Broch of Gurness and it is fascinating. Couldn't believe we could walk in and around it. Also visited Dun Carloway on the Isle of Lewis. Unbelievable structures. Thanks for the vid. 👍
Beautiful raw nature ofScotland and calming voice of the host just perfect.
Such a captivating and easy on the ear commentary voice.
10/10
Well, this 'free' content has just cost me! Good luck to the people building that new Brock.
Thanks for donating!
Awww😘
Broch but thanks
Thanks for this fascinating story! I hope one day we can unravel the mystery of the Neolithic stoneworkers!
Very, very well done indeed! Thank you for affording those of us of northern European descent a gorgeous look into our native lands, however far away from them we live today....
Why stop fighting for them?
@@CreamCobblerFiend I don't understand what you're asking, friend.
Great vid! I've genuinely never heard about brochs before, but I'm supporting the project now.
Thank you so much!
I am impressed. This content was gripping. Excellent production.
Very well made video! High production values all around, good narration and an interesting narrative. Good job =D
An excellent documentary. Intellectual content with beautiful scenery and excellent computer diagrams.
History Time - Before watching I know I have a fascinating half hour ahead. World class productions sir. Thank you
Thanks so much!
@James Bunn - I agree
@@paulcateiii - Glad to see a lot of support and encouragement for History Time all over this page. No one does it better on YT
I love the history of our Island .
And its nice to see new vids like this .
Great vid and well done brother
Instead of "Let's build a Broch" the project should be named "We will, with a wee will, Broch you!"
That was too sophisticated, I'm afraid hardly anyone got it ;)
Fascinating and very well put together, good luck with the build!!!
I've seen Jarlshof, Gurness, Isle of Mousa, Dun Dornagil and the Kilmartin Valley and other sites. I want to go back again and see some Pictish stones. I saw Hadrian's Wall and the course of the Antonine Wall near Bonnybridge which my ex. was not impressed with.
I've done some stone walling so can appreciate the work gone into building brochs.
I have been in a broch and have been to Jarlshof, Skara Brae, The Ring of Brogar and many other neolithic sites around Scotland. I have also built many structures as I practise bushcraft in my spare time and it seems near impossible to recreate what they built with what they had.
I have great admiration for the motivation, strength and stamina our ancestors must have had. It makes me think modern humans have become weak and lazy in comparison.
I thoroughly enjoy your endeavors! Gratitude!!!
Thanks very much!
You should check sardinian 'nuraghi', similar to brochs except that they are older and built with bigger stones... and there are thousands in Sardinia.
This was a great documentary about a subject I knew nothing about. I can see your channel going through the roof of one of these Brochs very soon.
Thank you very much for that amazing history lesson. Unfortunately I am unable to support your Broch building project financially but I wish you all the best. I'm sure you will learn many fascinating things about how our ancestors lived.
Great stuff and very interesting , good luck with your Build.
It's so amazing to learn so much about an important portion of my ancient ancestors into the Hebrides and others. Round houses made of rock and stone. Extremely admirable! Thank you!
Very interesting. Really well done. Much appreciated and enjoyed. I look forward to visiting the new Broch.
The round houses remind me of the "burg" or boroughs which were the circular towns and villages, which were settlements found in Scotland and England back then. They were effective against the Vikings, if I remember correctly but for a little while.
Man I’m thinking how crazy it would have been you been traveling a 3 days ride from where ever through the stinging rain to meet with some clan chief and you get to sleep in a warm stone building that’s as big as any structure you have been in..... pretty nuts
After months of scrolling through history oriented vids about Scotish history Before the roman times, this was at last a very informative and wello documented piece of history. I will certainly look through the rest of your "History time" videos.
That proves it!
Music is thicker than blood - and sisters are thicker than any force against it.
I am so glad for you both.
Journey on, dear Nancy, dearest Ann, journey on…
We’re still here.
Very interesting! If they lasted between 3000 BC to 200 AD, this tradition straddled multiple eras, cultural and even genetic turnovers in British pre-history.
Just been to that Broch, family live in Stornoway.
hardergamer saw it on my honeymoon
Great video as always!! Thank you bro! I appreciate your work
Awesome stuff! Since first reading Diana Gabaldon's Outlander, I've been fascinated by these brochs and how/why they were built.
beautiful Scotland
The landscape is stunning.
The best as usual! I love this so much!
Thanks for watching!
Every weekend i enjoy learning and watching your videos and other's alike more than i like cable tv and that says a lot !!!!!
So interesting! Thank you for the excellent content lad! 😊.
Facinating. I had no idea these where even a thing. Stunning filming of my favourite part of the world as well =)
I have no money, but I can build if there's a place to camp food and beer?!
Excellent video, enjoyed it enormously.
Thankyou for watching!
Fascinating video. Perfect narration. Will head up to Caithness in my old campervan and have a look myself.
Awesome vid, excellent work!
Glad I can help. If the project is looking for experienced dry stone waller's to volunteer to help build it. I would do that too.
Get in touch with the charity :)
People that dont wear knickers should not be messed with
Especially if they're not wearing any in a place as cold as Scotland
Excellent show! Well done. Thank you.
You have the best channel of videos for learning history. Love your stuff.
Not bashing the brochs but it is amazing to think that a civilization such as Rome made it to these isles and came in contact with these people.
Why that's what they did, they conquered all over Europe, took southern Britain then had to build 2 walls to seperate it from northern Britain
@@johnmaclagan2263 just saying humans are amazing
@@caymuscairns6845 Aye specially the humans who kept the Roman Horde away
I found a word of power up at the top of one of those once
Love the Skyrim reference :D
It just keeps getting better and better!!!
I love that introduction, describing the land first and then introducing the Celts.
YESSSSSSSSS! Thank you so much!
Thanks for watching!
Wish I'd of seen this sooner. I built a subterranean version in a local park.
I left a letter and an engraving of the origins.
I look forward to the shit storm when it's found.
Its only 40 feet wide. And it's well buried. So I doubt it will found any time soon.
Had I known about this project sooner if of given my back.
Explain?
ThankU for sharing and posting .
I always love your videos, because you always teach something that I didn't know, just feeding my curiosity.
Awesome vid. I'm not convinced the roofs would keep out the rain if they were constructed that way though, it makes no sense. They need to overlap the walls to work, unless they were using some type of rain water gathering system.
Well this is what we are kind of hoping to investigate and perhaps partly answer with our project. The only we'll understand if something works or dones't work is trying it ourselves.
Please do consider donating to our 'wee' project - www.crowdfunder.co.uk/lets-build-a-broch
Every little helps :)
Judging by the image at 19:30, the thatch does look very thin and in later buildings could be as thick as 0.5m(ish) to be effective. Though water would still pool and rot the thatch quicker. Alternatively another layer of wood beams could do the job if supported by the inner, stronger layer. Turf could have been an option and was commonly used with stone, though I don't know if the wood would rot faster or be able to hold the weight, though if to caused the beams to slay out, the stone structure would be able to take the pressure.
That being said, I saw a broch in shetland and could have sworn I saw a single drain sized hole near the top
The broch appears to be what's on the outside of houses. The house would be inside the brach, with a roof on the house. Notice the circle within the circle.
Beautiful footage but a shame that the narrator mispronounces so many Scots, Gaelic and English words. These places are fantastic to visit and experience. The craft and skill in construction demonstrated by these buildings is amazing.
It angers me when they say armies invaded and took over Scotland
Scots would never allow this
@@philobetto5106 not while I'm alive
Top quality. Beautifully made 🙏🏻
Wow! Amazing video for an amazing topic! Thank you!
we have a broch at torwood a few miles north of antonine's wall,most of the stone in central scotland was recycled over the centuries,One roman monument built after the destruction of the torwood broch a few miles south on the river carron was arthur's oen the last standing roman building in scotland was recycled to make a dam the early 18th century,the dam was lost in a spate
the broch however remains.
Even in the 18th century there were many who regarded the destruction of Arthur's O'on as a disgrace, but there was nothing anyone could do about it. About 30 years ago an American academic (Norma Lore Goodrich?) proposed digging out the Carron River to find the stones, but nothing was done. There is still a (scale) replica of the O'on.
Early in the 19th century the owner of Shakespeare's house in Stratford was so fed up with sight-seers knocking on his door that he had the building demolished. That contributed to the movement to preserve historic buildings in private ownership.
In Grampian we have Granite being used over 10,000 years ago. The vitrified forts take some explaining. To melt and vitrify Stone takes a heat over duration that technically should have been impossible at the time. However we still know here how it was done.
The indigenous Scots were here and have remained since time recorded. Pure Scots have some of the purest DNA recorded anywhere in the world outside Australian indigenous people. No racism bloodgroup mixing is below mathematics prediction possibility only in these two peoples, however some Amazoian and African peoples should also be tested and added to this study.
@@sanderson9338 I would love to know more about this mate send me some articles or vids please 💙🏴
Ive been inside a broch on the Hebrides. Amazing intact internal corridor thousand years old!. Is there a link between north scotland and Doggerland.????? As many structures predate Stonehenge.
I imagine there is definitely a link between the north of Scotland and Doggerland, it's still a massive mystery though, imagine all that was lost as the sea rose up and coastlines were swallowed.
The production values of your videos are really great.
Don't know why this came up on recommend viewing but has brought back a flood of memories from my Geography degree way back, one under graduate exam question .. " Picts, enigmatic?" It was suggested by our lecturer that Brochs were mainly built as a status symbol. Something I do remember thinking was why were almost all Brochs built in such close proximity to the sea?
I hypothesize that that early neolithic was a golden age. Agriculture allowed for the storage of food to get through winter and lean times and supplemented the peoples hunter gatherer lifestyle. Unfortunately it also caused increased population and competition for resources which the more ruthless seized upon to develop a warrior culture.
Humans can be quite nice if not stressed by crowding and competition for resources.
Climatic, not Climactic... nit-picky of me, but my dead grandma, the ancient one-room schoolhouse teacher that she was, will haunt me if I don't make noise about the difference. :)
Indeed. It must say something (probably not a good thing) about us that I, too, paused at ca. 11:59 to see whether someone had already commented on this.
[Edit: to be fair, I think it sticks out like a sore thumb because the video is, otherwise, really well-scripted]
Klima
@Big Bill O'Reilly Groan. Why would you insult Alipiko? He knows the difference between climactic and climatic. The Orange One is only interested in climax.
Thank you likeminded viewer...
@Bil Bill O,Reilly He should be insulted for correcting somebody who is not there to defend themselves, just like many others have done, it is a piss pour attempt to make themselves seam smart. In reality there is a good chance Alipiko is an idiot duchebag. That could be the guys accent or a typo in his script that he has read wrong or he just mispronouced it. Does not matter though because he has built something and Alipiko just insults and degrades it. So he deserves to be insulted the little piece of crap, duchebag for exactly what he is, and he has announced to the world himself that he is a petty piece of shit.
What an amazing video! I would love to see some more of the inside layout of the rooms and passages if you make a follow up.
Thankyou!
Fantastic job! Thank you so much!
Fast forward a millennia and the genes of Scotland are still extraordinarily defiant.
No problem about that we still live on .
Defiant? Does that mean the English are still extraordinarily entitled?
@@fireblade2681 I was not saying it for England. Although neither country has been kind. By the way hello Excalibre it is nice to meet you.
@@MegaBeartrap Aye, we were bought and sold for English gold but we'll have our wee bit hill and glen le dubhan no le crook.
@@fireblade2681 I am a prophet from Australia, I wish I could undestand that. I just came tell you who you are and plead your case. I have met one other from your House here. Your House you descend from is called Fire Brand. The spirit of your House is in chipotle. I just had some on my pizza and found you.
I called you excalibre because that is who you descend from. Merlin gave arthur (son of King Geoffrey of England) one of four power swords. He gave excalibre to King Richard 1st, uncle of arthur. Clarent the other sword was thrown in a lake. However arthur had a son merlin gave him to adopt. You descend from that son and he was the start of House Fire Brand. You are very special my friend. Look after yourself, I will let you know if I learn more. Hallelujah. Glory to God.
Much more exciting than game of thrones season 8
Reality beats TV every time
Great content, love your channel, you’re only going up from here!
This has to be one of the best documentaries i have ever seen
What and where is that large chasm with a stream or river at the bottom? It looks as if the island has been cleaved in two. It appears twice.
I've been looking for that place too
And don't forget this was well before Irn Bru!
Fascinating. Thanks very much for this.
Thank you very much
Awesome programme !
"Picts" was simply a Roman insult meaning "painted people". We don't know what they called themselves, if they had any overall name at all. Their last known kingdom was called Fortriu, and that may have been an overall identity. Another (disputed) suggestion from the Irish annals is Cruthin.
Tacitus is not reliable, a propagandist rather than a factual historian. Whatever these people called themselves, they had a writing system, but very little of it survives on stone monuments. We do know a little of these people's history of themselves at second hand, however, both from the Irish annals and from Bede's Historia. Suffice it to say that their legend was of defeating the Romans, not of the Romans defeating them.
The fact that the Romans retreated a long way South after what Tacitus calls the battle of Mons Grapius may mean the Romans were defeated there, and Tacitus wasn't going to admit that. Or it may mean the Romans won that battle but, having done so, saw no reason to hang around in an inhospitable land where there was nothing they wanted, so they retreated South anyway and that was counted as victory by the local tribes who'd fought them. We don't know, so take your pick!
Seán O'Nilbud Have yourself a little cry. It's what you do best
@ away with ye
Tacitus and other Roman upper class people thought they were ubermensch compared to foreigners.
@@comanchio1976 Weak response to someone with a valid point.
@@diannew6066 First off; people with "valid points" don't start off sentences with "cocksucking.."
Secondly, using the blanket term "English" is as ridiculous as calling all Germans "Nazis".
But then, if you had half a brain; I wouldn't imagine I'd have to explain these blindingly obvious things to you - so I expect that what I've said will soar around 20 miles over your head.
The Picts, was a great Warrior nation who could not be defeated by the Romans.
Thanks for another great video
Thanks very much for watching
Very well made video with informative and vivid illustrations ✨👍