Understanding Amplifier Class A & Class AB

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  • Опубліковано 24 гру 2024

КОМЕНТАРІ • 248

  • @billmcdonald2436
    @billmcdonald2436 4 роки тому +8

    See this video is a prime example of why UA-cam needs a “love” button along side the thumbs up “like” button. Thank you so much Tony for putting this together. You are an excellent teacher and I’ve learned so much from your channel.

  • @johncunningham5435
    @johncunningham5435 4 роки тому +4

    I am a retired engineer; always nice to have a refresher, "excellent presentation", thanks Tony.

  • @davidmiller8618
    @davidmiller8618 2 роки тому +4

    This video really made me think! That capacitor in the output is not as simple as it seems at first. Excellent! Thanks for taking the time to really walk through that. You make several good points that are often skipped completely. Thumbs up!

  • @SteveBrace
    @SteveBrace 4 роки тому +1

    I understood all this "instinctively"... I have been playing with electronics since I was 7 years old, I trained as an electronics technician-engineer in the 80s and I'm now in my mid-50s. I watch basics edutorials like this to fill holes in my understanding and you, sir, have educated me in a thing that sometimes trips me up! NEVER be too proud to admit that there are some things you have basically misunderstood.

  • @I-Libertine
    @I-Libertine 9 місяців тому +2

    Beautiful and thorough explanation. Best video I've found covering this question. Thanks!

  • @isoguy.
    @isoguy. 4 роки тому +5

    You have an amazing mind Sir and an incredible talent for teaching.
    Thank you for this awesomely educational lesson
    ⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐

  • @BStrapper
    @BStrapper 9 місяців тому +1

    By very far the best video i have ever seen explaining the basis of audio amplifiers.

  • @TheZacharySutliff
    @TheZacharySutliff 2 роки тому +5

    Thank you. This video was very informative and easy for me to understand with your explanation. I can’t wait to learn more. My passion for audio has fueled my desire to learn and I’m glad I found your channel.

  • @johnmarchington3146
    @johnmarchington3146 2 роки тому +2

    Thanks or another great video. I built my class A amplifiers from a renowned circuit that had been upgraded for extra power output and ease of 'setting-up' adjustments. They each have four output transistors - all NPN types - and produce between 50 and 60 watts into 8 ohms, drawing over 3 amps quiescent current so the ample heatsinking definitely get warm. I'm very pleased with their sound quality.

  • @SinnerSince1962
    @SinnerSince1962 4 роки тому +1

    All of my life I've heard audiophiles explaining how important it is to get DC offset and idle current right, never knowing exactly why. Now, I know. Thanks Tony for this graphic and well demonstrated explanation! You rock!

  • @g.fortin3228
    @g.fortin3228 Рік тому +1

    Digging back through the videos.. So thankful for these as they are helping me to get my head wrapped around the operation of the amps and understanding the circuit better than I was. Great explanations, you are doing the vintage audio DIY community a service like no other. Many thanks ! I may now be able to solve some problems as I continue to learn .

  • @marcodoria
    @marcodoria 3 роки тому +2

    You don't confuse anyone! Hope you keep up the good work for a really long time! Be safe and thank you sir! Best wishes from the Azores, Portugal!

  • @osliverpool
    @osliverpool 4 роки тому +3

    That's by far the best explanation of class A and class AB I've ever seen, thank you. I have a scope, and you've inspired me to get a breadboard now and have a play!

  • @henry-o7236
    @henry-o7236 3 роки тому +1

    This has to be the best explanation of transistors and amplifiers hands down. Your explanations are very clear and easy to understand. Thank you very much for such a great job.

  • @Snwman_
    @Snwman_ 2 роки тому +2

    Thank you for your time and effort in putting this wonderfully explained video together. Kind regards from the UK.

  • @anthonyderosa5181
    @anthonyderosa5181 4 роки тому +1

    Well done Tony. Great video. Very good explanations of some very important concepts. The three diodes are drawn backwards on your schematic. IMHO if the volts/div settings were the same when showing the input signal versus the output signal , the amplification of the transistor would be easier to appreciate. I love your woodworking skills... the cabinet you made for the Marantz 2500 was awesome!

  • @georgeh1352
    @georgeh1352 9 місяців тому

    Very good, swept away a few cobwebs and learnt a few things new. Much better explained and demonstrated than lecturers I've had before.

  • @bannanafruitsalad
    @bannanafruitsalad Рік тому +1

    As a self tought student, this was a godsend. I feel like my knowledge was always fuzzy when it came to how amps worked and this really cleared up what was going on, at least in class a amps lol. Thank you!

  • @C0wb0yh3nk
    @C0wb0yh3nk 4 роки тому +4

    Tony, you drew the diodes in the wrong way around or are they zeners?

    • @xraytonyb
      @xraytonyb  4 роки тому +2

      I drew them wrong. That's what happens when you get in a hurry. Thanks for catching that!

    • @widecast
      @widecast 4 роки тому

      But then why would you draw 3 zenor diodes in series. As explained they are drawn the wrong way around.

    • @C0wb0yh3nk
      @C0wb0yh3nk 4 роки тому

      @@widecast here is a new concept for you: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarcasm

  • @brianfletcher9774
    @brianfletcher9774 4 роки тому +2

    Tony, I figure working on medical equipment pays very well. However...why are you not a teacher at the technical college level ? You and Uncle Doug (he has his UA-cam channel). I WISH I had you guys as instructors when I went to electronics school in 1997. You are a gifted individual ! Thank you so much. I learn more now than I did in school.

  • @bugdrvr
    @bugdrvr 4 роки тому +2

    Thanks for taking the time to put this video together. It's very informative!

  • @pda49184
    @pda49184 4 роки тому

    Great tutorial Tony... I'm an amateur tinkerer and it never hurts to have the basics drilled in ...

  • @sandraledger2612
    @sandraledger2612 4 роки тому +2

    You are doing a great job explaining. Now throw in an explanation of the datasheet transistor curves, choosing Q point and load lines.

  • @mangist
    @mangist 3 роки тому +2

    Amazing video, I wish books could explain this concept the way you do. Thank you.

  • @matthewh4550
    @matthewh4550 2 роки тому +2

    Thankyou for putting this video together, it really helped me understand this topic after quite a few failed attempts at doing so from reading alone. Much appreciated!

  • @tonybalm1513
    @tonybalm1513 4 роки тому

    My late Father taught me this many years ago but my understanding kinda got a bit rusty since. I was a little confused to start with but all became clear as the video went on. This is by far the best explanation video on here of how different class amplifier's work. You mentioned Pioneer amplifiers and non switching. I have the A70 which is non switching but has two high current 50V & 70V rails. I am still from the circuit diagram trying to understand how this works. I think you worked on a Carver which was class G with two voltage rails. I don't think it is class G but may be class A at lower volumes it seems to sound much smoother and warmer. If you turn the volume up it seems to sound less warm and slightly harsh. This is an outstanding video. Thank you

  • @bparker86
    @bparker86 4 роки тому

    an hour and 21 minutes of gold. thank you for this fantastic breakdown on ac and dc waveforms and bias and transistors. ive learned so much from this and ill be watching several more times. thank you again for this!!!!

  • @johnmarchington3146
    @johnmarchington3146 2 місяці тому

    Thanks Tony for an excellent video on class A amplifier biasing.

  • @mr-iago
    @mr-iago 2 роки тому +2

    The Best video explaining amplifiers I have seen up until now :).

  • @martovify
    @martovify 3 роки тому +1

    superb, this went step by step on why each component is there and why it cant be as one would imagine it in the first place!

  • @petrisz
    @petrisz 2 роки тому +1

    Thank you for all your effort and time. Now I understand this topic much better.

  • @Conservator.
    @Conservator. 4 роки тому +1

    Thank you for a crystal clear explanation. 🙏
    1:20:37 Yes, I’m still with you! 😉

  • @ronaldpaul533
    @ronaldpaul533 2 роки тому +2

    good video. I watched the whole thing. I have a better understanding on how both work now.

  • @scrappy7571
    @scrappy7571 2 роки тому

    Thanks Tony! This one really helped me to understand the DC bias, and how the transistors work in a amp.

  • @NICK-uy3nl
    @NICK-uy3nl 4 роки тому +2

    Great video. I noticed there is no output capacitor on class AB amp, even though both transistors are still biased a little bit in the linear region with some DC voltage present on the output signal, isn't that harmful to the speaker however small that DC bias voltage might be ?

    • @xraytonyb
      @xraytonyb  4 роки тому +2

      In a class AB amp, both the positive and negative output transistors have equal and opposite amounts of bias on them at idle, so when added together, they equal zero volts. For example, if there were +50 millivolts of bias on the NPN output side and -50 millivolts on the PNP side, then (+50) + (-50) = 0 volts. The only way to see DC on the speaker terminal is if one side were biased more than the other. That's where the DC offset adjustment (when available) comes into play. DC offset adjustment insures that you have equal and opposite bias on both sides. Lower cost amps don't have adjustable DC offset and rely on component matching to insure low/no DC offset. Thanks for watching.

    • @NICK-uy3nl
      @NICK-uy3nl 4 роки тому

      @@xraytonyb - So why not use an output cap on a class AB as an insurance, anyway? Do output capacitors introduce undesirable distortions, like slowing down fast rise times, phase distortion, or attenuating lower frequencies? - aside from the fact that electrolytic caps have a limited lifetime and degrade rapidly at higher temps.

    • @Roflcopter4b
      @Roflcopter4b 4 роки тому

      @@NICK-uy3nl A capacitor will always allow more high frequency current through than low frequency. But more importantly you'd need a humongous capacitor to allow several dozen watts through. It would be refrigerator sized. That's hardly practical.

    • @NICK-uy3nl
      @NICK-uy3nl 4 роки тому +1

      @@Roflcopter4b - I must disagree. All high powered class A amps use output caps and they are not humongous.

    • @jonka1
      @jonka1 4 роки тому

      @@NICK-uy3nl A perfectly balanced AB output stage can supply unlimited current response to the speaker within the capacity of the components. Introducing a capacitor will interfere with that ability unless a very large and expensive cap is used. It's a design choice to use a circuit that balances well and gives a good current delivery.

  • @kennyrmurray
    @kennyrmurray 3 роки тому

    You are the only one that finally made me understand this as I am an amateur. Thanks again, and you also stay well!

  • @dhpbear2
    @dhpbear2 4 роки тому +1

    12:27 - Wow. This is SO much better than the DC I'd been listening to :)

  • @michaelpeck8868
    @michaelpeck8868 4 роки тому

    Hi Tony, I'm just starting to get into electronics for a hobby and this was the first of your video's I seen. I just wanted to say thanks the the great explanation of what BIASing is and how to use it. Looking forward to watching more of your Video's.

  • @danadaniels4812
    @danadaniels4812 4 роки тому +1

    What is the brand and model of your breadboard you are using at the start of your video.love your channel

  • @kristiannaess5565
    @kristiannaess5565 4 роки тому +1

    A very useful video that contains what I needed to get the basic understandings of Class A and A/B amps. I enjoyed it very much and it inspired me to do some simulations and circuit building :-)

  • @robbspro
    @robbspro 3 місяці тому

    Thanks Tony! your video was of great help! I appreciate your patience in discussing theory and practice! Great!

  • @siavoshkasravi398
    @siavoshkasravi398 3 роки тому

    I am in the middle still, 38:04. Its amazing thank you. Answering the exact questions I had.

  • @losaminos59
    @losaminos59 2 роки тому +1

    Good stuff man! Really like your style of teaching this

  • @ronaldolehrbach
    @ronaldolehrbach Рік тому

    That was a great, great teaching! Very good explanation, with very good practical demonstrations. Thank you so much! I am looking forward to learning more with your help!

  • @pandouros
    @pandouros 4 роки тому

    Thank you very much for the lesson. Have you done a video fort he bias on cassete decks and how it works?

  • @lukenicholls2522
    @lukenicholls2522 3 роки тому

    Great explanation. I'm trying to diagnose a faulty Rotel 1062 and this has helped me understand the circuit diagram a lot!

  • @Mrsteve4761
    @Mrsteve4761 4 роки тому

    Very enlightening and understandable to this beginner of electronics. Thanks for this!

  • @PeterMilanovski
    @PeterMilanovski 4 роки тому +1

    Great video Tony, What I would love to know is what effect would the ESR of the output capacitor have on the output signal? Would more smaller capacitors with very low ESR be better than a single larger capacitor? Or maybe a combination of both? The reason why I ask is because I feel like the smaller capacitors can respond faster than the larger ones, I could be wrong but it's just a feeling and I don't know for sure! I purchased a bridge rectifier kit off eBay that came complete with the rectifier, PCB and a lot of smaller low ESR capacitors in DIY form. I purchased it because I remember seeing a video somewhere how a large capacitor does fine with the bulk of the ripple but by simply adding a smaller low value capacitor cleaned up the DC output even more whereas adding more larger capacitors wouldn't have done the same... In the case of the output on an amplifier, faster responding capacitors should make an impact on the output signal? I guess that this is one of the areas where amplifiers get their characteristic sound from.. Yeah I'm still not sure though but something is giving me the feeling that it would make a difference...

  • @brucebuckeye
    @brucebuckeye 4 роки тому +1

    Awesome video! This puts together many things in my head, connecting dots that I've needed to connect! Thanks so much!!

  • @stevegwardify
    @stevegwardify 4 роки тому +1

    Greeting from England, What an awesome channel, great work. I look forward to watching your videos from the bench and your wood shop.... Thank You.... P.S just bought my first Scope...

  • @wobboonstra9290
    @wobboonstra9290 4 роки тому

    Great explanation, great video Tony, learned something again. Look forward to the next series.

  • @alanvandusen76
    @alanvandusen76 3 роки тому +1

    Well done, Even with a what I think is a good understanding of how they all work I proved tonight even an old dog can learn a new trick. Thanks for the great lesson.

  • @c3kkos
    @c3kkos 4 роки тому +2

    Very nice video! Thanks. One question: are those diodes on the right polarity wiring? I'm talking about the three u used to adjust the bias voltage in the first scheme. It does feel wrong if those diodes block the DC to ground isnt it?

    • @erikdenhouter
      @erikdenhouter 3 роки тому

      They are indeed in the wrong way, I noticed trough the video.

  • @davids4610
    @davids4610 4 роки тому +1

    Tony, you're an amazing teacher! Thanks

  • @teeeeeeeeeet
    @teeeeeeeeeet 4 роки тому

    Exceptional video. Keep them coming.

  • @elinbenson
    @elinbenson 4 роки тому

    I've been waiting for someone to make a video putting all these concepts together. I have an amateur understanding of all of this, but I haven't had someone connect all the dots. I think your explanation was great.

  • @walkertownvet4108
    @walkertownvet4108 4 роки тому +1

    Very good. Cleared up a lot of questions I had. Thank you!

  • @RicardoPenders
    @RicardoPenders 4 роки тому

    Because I don't have an oscilloscope myself I never see the signals the way you showed it here in this video so thank you for sharing, now I have a better idea of a DC signal through a diode.

  • @magrumb
    @magrumb Рік тому

    Easiest to understand and well explained video on the subject!💙

  • @bradcfi2
    @bradcfi2 4 роки тому +1

    Thanks a bunch. You are a great teacher. Don't mind long videos if I am learning.

  • @garrybrewster5821
    @garrybrewster5821 3 роки тому

    god bless, i've had some training with tube and transistors manly RF, this has re-started my interest, I've always had a little trouble with biasing (TR cut-off) this has helped a lot ....thank you

  • @DJVybeBeats
    @DJVybeBeats 3 роки тому +1

    This is such an excellent video. Thank you very much Tony.

  • @xinjin5427
    @xinjin5427 3 роки тому +1

    The best explanation I ever see

  • @patrikprekop8975
    @patrikprekop8975 3 роки тому

    The best amplifier explanation 🙏👍

  • @tonysfun
    @tonysfun 4 роки тому +1

    Very nice Tony (I'll remember your name easy!)! You are a working electronic dictionary and I just wish you are my neighbor! In my case, I'm trying to learn after 50+ years of inactivity in electronics and it is much harder to learn than back in my teen age.... Thank you for details and explaining everything! I'll show your videos to my friends Sunday and Monday in our meetings.

  • @bobof673
    @bobof673 9 місяців тому

    Great video thank you Tony. You explain circuits well. Can you do a similar vid explaining a typical AB classic pioneer amp. Im currently working on a pioneer SA1040 100w per channel.

  • @mcaddc
    @mcaddc 4 роки тому

    Thanks for the easy to follow information & explanation! Love the presentation!

  • @SIXSTRING63
    @SIXSTRING63 4 роки тому +1

    Basically you’re saying having a DC biased sine wave, which you don’t want on speakers but is common in the amp circuits such as the signal that gets amplified riding on negative DC to the grids of output tubes and positive on the plates. AC components on a DC voltage. That is why I love my Brymen BM869s meter, has a nice dual display showing both, my Fluke 189 does it too but the Brymen displays much nicer. Saves breaking out the scope at times.

  • @kgsalvage6306
    @kgsalvage6306 4 роки тому

    Even though I know all of this, but you gave a great analogy of it. I'm not through much of the video yet, but I think you are getting to DC offset. Which is more or less what an ac signal is riding on some dc current. Or AC ripple.

  • @kardeef33317
    @kardeef33317 4 роки тому +1

    What software are you using for your USB Scope ? The software that came with Hantek 6022BL is so bad its makes it almost useless. Or could anyone point me towards anything better?

    • @xraytonyb
      @xraytonyb  4 роки тому +2

      I'm still not totally clear on this, but as far as I can tell, there are at least three versions of the 6000 series scopes (each with different sub-models for bandwidth, etc.). If you get the wrong software for your specific model, it's really unreliable. You can go to Hantek's website and download the correct version. It will still hang up every now and then, but it works fairly well. Hope that helps.

    • @kardeef33317
      @kardeef33317 4 роки тому +1

      @@xraytonyb Thank You and I will

  • @Wicker83
    @Wicker83 4 роки тому

    Easily within the top five of all videos I've watched on this subject......Great Work! Thanks

  • @montech5647
    @montech5647 3 роки тому

    12:27 - so, which of the tones is DC? The first more "open" tone, or the following more "muddy" tone at 13:30?

    • @johnadams9041
      @johnadams9041 3 роки тому

      Not explained and not clear at all why is this , because may be not an amplifiers that working only with a positive current

    • @deang5622
      @deang5622 2 роки тому

      @@johnadams9041 If you listen to his explanation at around 17 minutes, it becomes clear that the phenomenon is nothing to do with an amplifier, it is simply a question of what is the best way, the right way to drive the speaker.

  • @rudyg2295
    @rudyg2295 Місяць тому

    Hello Tony, thanks for this video. I have learned a lot.
    Quick question, can you make video about how bias circuits controlling idling current in amplifier? There are a lot of video on how to adjust it, but none explaining from the beginning and how it work in the circuit amplifier.

  • @rolfts5762
    @rolfts5762 4 роки тому +1

    _1) Thanks for sharing good quality knowledge in nice interesting and pedagogic way. _2) You announced yourself the reversed cap on breadboard, nice :). ...though regarding the 'diodes' (in the schematic), those has been drawn in wrong direction(but coupled Ok on breadboard). Just wanted to make aware of it. ,,Thanks again Tony, and have nice week over the pond there. /br, from norway.

  • @highflyingfalcon1380
    @highflyingfalcon1380 4 роки тому

    It's very helpful for me! Thank you for spending your free time for us!

  • @amoontube
    @amoontube 2 роки тому +2

    I gained a lot more understanding from your video - love your way of explanation - thankyou. Could you do a transistor 101 please?

  • @user-su5sq5ib3i
    @user-su5sq5ib3i 4 роки тому

    When a transistor is turned completely on is there any voltage drop to be considered or not worth considering for our purposes?

  • @bradcfi2
    @bradcfi2 4 роки тому +1

    What a great video. Learned much.

  • @boybravo689
    @boybravo689 2 роки тому

    Thumbs up done nice video tutorial new subcriber from the philippines tnx sir

  • @all.n.1
    @all.n.1 9 місяців тому

    Perfect. Great explanation, thanks.💥

  • @surakeneni1310
    @surakeneni1310 4 місяці тому +1

    Thank you very much 🙏🏾🙏🏾🙏🏾🙏🏾especially with capavitor thing.... You solved one of my headache my saddnes

  • @oskarsfreimanis8192
    @oskarsfreimanis8192 Рік тому +1

    One of best explanations ever! Thank you very much!

  • @SS-mj2mq
    @SS-mj2mq 3 роки тому

    I really loved how you explained everything you're awesome great video 🤗💯✌️

  • @chefbink61
    @chefbink61 4 роки тому

    really nice job look forward to the next one!!

  • @adrianmiszczuk8061
    @adrianmiszczuk8061 11 місяців тому

    Do you think Wide-band speakers can sound better while playing this sine wave frequency? I heard rumors that wide band speakers get more bass at the same amplitude of signal, it is true?

  • @StealthParrot
    @StealthParrot 4 роки тому

    Great video. What are you using for scope software to display it on the video monitor? Or is that just a video output on your scope?

  • @robnic52
    @robnic52 4 роки тому

    Lightbulb moment! Beautifully explained. Thank you.

  • @keybutnolock
    @keybutnolock 3 роки тому

    Vitamins 1:05:01 Don't overdose vitamins or 'the bottom will fall out of your world'
    no visa-versa ! But great vid, thanks

  • @jean-lucpicard2418
    @jean-lucpicard2418 4 роки тому

    Thanks very much man for this lesson. I enjoyed every minut of the 81 of them.

  • @ziggfreud9820
    @ziggfreud9820 2 роки тому +1

    I learned a tremendous amount I didn't know, very satisfying!

  • @richardredcastle7911
    @richardredcastle7911 4 роки тому

    OMG, I just learnt so much and it was beautifully explained to a novice like me. Thank you.

  • @vernonbosshard9317
    @vernonbosshard9317 9 місяців тому

    What PC based scope and bread board do you use?

  • @vernonbosshard9317
    @vernonbosshard9317 7 місяців тому

    What is the advantage of class A amps, I have seen a few audiophile class A amps, very expensive amps, I don't get why.

    • @thesoggykitten6981
      @thesoggykitten6981 7 місяців тому +1

      Low linearity and distortion, they are terribly inefficient though. Good for headphone amps

    • @vernonbosshard9317
      @vernonbosshard9317 6 місяців тому

      They are like Cadillac's, very good quality amps but guzzle a lot of energy.

    • @johnmarchington3146
      @johnmarchington3146 2 місяці тому

      I built my own class A amps - monoblocks - and love them. The heat-sinks do get really warm, though.

    • @deang5622
      @deang5622 2 місяці тому +1

      Higher quality, there is no cross over distortion.
      Linearity is better too.
      The disadvantage is that whatever the maximum power output the circuit is designed to deliver, they always consume that total amount of power, irrespective of the level of signal input.
      So when the input signal is not present, resulting in silence, no output, the class A is still consuming the same amount of power as when the amp is at full volume.

  • @stefanb.933
    @stefanb.933 11 місяців тому

    hello. I noticed at the beginning that the shape of the sine wave on the DC side is not symmetrical, that is, the top part of the wave is a little bumpier than the bottom part... I also face something like this, it is easily noticeable... I have a finally with tl071 and two bd transistors (139-140)... the sine wave input capacitor is 220uF and the output capacitor is 6800uF. the load is a simple 4 ohm coil. the frequency of the wave is 8hz. I am within the limit of Vmax 3.00v and Vmin -0.89v...what would be the cause of that distortion?

    • @stefanb.933
      @stefanb.933 11 місяців тому

      the scheme is similar to the first scheme on this page, with lm741 and bc transistors 2n3904 and 2n3906...: www.google.com/search?sca_esv=599830617&sxsrf=ACQVn0_wIjG2hY8yfeYnyO0Az2rrlQhhtA:1705682503271&q=Amplifiers/push-pull-amplifier-using-bjt-transistors&tbm=isch&source=lnms&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiPwdO98umDAxXDhf0HHRsuD64Q0pQJegQICBAB&biw=1280&bih=913&dpr=1

  • @jonka1
    @jonka1 4 роки тому +1

    Tony one explanation that can help some to understand a changing DC signal is to tell them to imagine an AC signal riding on top of a DC voltage. Many people have spent years believing that DC is (as per a battery) a steady voltage and the mind can get stuck with this idea.

  • @pattybuie5878
    @pattybuie5878 4 роки тому

    Where did you get the neat bread board with the meters

  • @buildstoys
    @buildstoys 4 роки тому

    Thanks Tony, time to make some popcorn for this one!

  • @bertoinstinto7485
    @bertoinstinto7485 Рік тому

    Amazing explanation for beginners!!!

  • @air54plane
    @air54plane 4 роки тому +1

    excellent, way you explain that. now I understand!!!

  • @elcocineroamericano
    @elcocineroamericano 4 роки тому

    Thank you so much for this! I had several lightbulb moments. Now do it with tubes please. :D