Are zoos BIG enough?

How big should zoo exhibits be? With the complex needs of animals needing to be met, is it really a case of bigger is better? Research suggests otherwise! Lets take a look at some of the considerations zoos have to make.
Full Reference List
de Azevedo, C.S.; Cipreste, C.F.; Pizzutto, C.S.; Young, R.J.(2023) Review of the Effects of Enclosure Complexity and Design on the Behaviour and Physiology of Zoo Animals. Animals 13:1277. doi.org/10.339...
Browning, H and Maple, TL (2019) Developing a Metric of Usable Space for Zoo Exhibits. Front. Psychol. 10:791. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00791
Clubb, R and Mason, G.J. (2007) Natural behavioural biology as a risk factor in carnivore welfare: How analysing species differences could help zoos improve enclosures. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 102:303-328. doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2006.05.033
Hoehfurtner, T; Wilkinson, A; Walker, M and Burman, OHP (2021) Does enclosure size influence the behaviour & welfare of captive snakes (Pantherophis guttatus)?, Applied Animal Behaviour Science 243. doi.org/10.101....
Lawrence, K.; Sherwen, S.L.; Larsen, H. (2021) Natural Habitat Design for Zoo-Housed Elasmobranch and Teleost Fish Species Improves Behavioural Repertoire and Space Use in a Visitor Facing Exhibit. Animals 11, 2979. doi.org/10.339...
Melfi, V; Bowkett, A; Plowman, A and Pullen, K. Do zoo designers know enough about animals? Innovation or replication. Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Zoo Design.
Miller, A.; Leighty, K.; Maloney, M.; Kuhar, C.; Bettinger, T. (2011) How access to exhibit space impacts the behaviour of female tigers (Panthera tigris). Zoo Biol. 30, 479-486 doi.org/10.100...
Ritzler, C.P; Lukas, K.E; Bernstein-Kurtycz, L.M & Koester, D.C. (2023) The Effects of Choice-Based Design and Management on the Behavior and Space Use of Zoo-Housed Amur Tigers (Panthera tigris altaica), Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science, 26:2, 256-269, DOI: 10.1080/10888705.2021.1958684
Rose, P., & Robert, R. (2013). Evaluating the activity patterns and enclosure usage of a little-studied zoo species, the sitatunga (Tragelaphus spekii). Journal of Zoo and Aquarium Research, 1(1), 14-19. doi.org/10.192...
Ross SR, Calcutt S, Schapiro SJ, Hau J. (2011) Space use selectivity by chimpanzees and gorillas in an indoor-outdoor enclosure. Am J Primatol. 73(2):197-208. doi: 10.1002/ajp.20891.
Veasey JS (2020) Can Zoos Ever Be Big Enough for Large Wild Animals? A Review Using an Expert Panel Assessment of the Psychological Priorities of the Amur Tiger (Panthera tigris altaica) as a Model Species. Animals (Basel). 31;10(9):1536. doi: 10.3390/ani10091536.
Veasey J.S. (2017) In pursuit of peak animal welfare; the need to prioritize the meaningful over the measurable. Zoo Biology 36(6), 413-425.
Warwick, C; Arena, P and Steedman, C (2019) Spatial considerations for captive snakes. Journal of Veterinary Behavior 30, 37-48. doi.org/10.101...
Wilson, SF (1982) Environmental influences on the activity of captive apes. Zoo Biology 1: 201-209. doi.org/10.100...
PICTURE REFERENCE
Castle Stalker © Andrea Mucelli (www.flickr.com/.... CC BY-NC-SA 2.0
Port Jackson Shark by Squiresk (www.inaturalis...) CC by 4.0.
Photo6754757 by Alejandro Trevino (www.inaturalis...) Public Domain.
Don’t touch the lizards by Andy Hay (www.flickr.com...) CC by 2.0.
Photo 153942287 by Lucy Keith-Diagne (www.inaturalis...) CC by 4.0.
Forest Sitatunga by Tonyking (www.inaturalis...) CC by 4.0.