Here's What EXACTLY Happened In Columbia's Final Moments (Re-upload)| Columbia Disaster
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- Опубліковано 18 лют 2023
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This is the story of columbia, this video will be a bit different from the ones ive done. Long time viewers of the channel will find this video very similar to the ones that i used to do when this channel was starting out, im going to play videos of the space shuttle cause this video required a lot of research. With that out of the way let get to the video ever since i was a little child I was fascinated with the space shuttle. When I was 7 i literally read everything I could about the space shuttle get my hands on and the destruction of columbia hit me hard. This video will be a deep dive into what happened on that fateful day. You see im a nerd and all the documentaries that ive watched never really go into the technical details of into what happened as she reenetred earths atmosphere for the last time and that is what this video will be. Just to clarify I’m not really going to talk about what happened on launch which caused the crash of columbia because thats been talked about ad nauseum. This will be a minute by minute run down of what went down and hopefully you learn something new about columbia that you didnt know before. we need to start at the top. For the sake of simplicity the video will be divided into 5 phases, phase one is from 09:15:30 am GMT time to 13:44:09 pm. This deal with the prep work that was done prior to reentry. We join space shuttle columbia as she is preparing to start the descend down to the runway at kennedy. We have a pretty good idea of whats happening in the orbiter at this point as we recovered tapes from the orbiter that survived the fall to the earth. So there was footage and we were able to see what everyone was up to in the orbiter. On the moring of re entry day they were busy putting things away and prepping the orbiter to land. 45 minutes before the retro rockets would be fired to bring columbia back down the commander and the pilot began to run through checklists needed. Then at 1 pm and 15 minutes and 30 seconds GMT time the de orbit burn occurred, the burn wasnt that long, this slowed the orbiter down just enough that its path now took it into the upper reaches of the atmosphere. They were now on their way down. AT 1:36 and 4 seconds the commander accidentally bumped the rotational hand controller. This wasnt that big of a deal and happened all the time because, the crew were wearing these bulky suits and gloves and sometimes you bumped into things, its not the end of the world and the crew recovered from it pretty quickly. This is where phase two starts, from 1:44 and 9 seconds, this is when the shuttle reached its entry interface point. We have even more data sources for this phase, ground based recording devices now could start to see columbia streaking into the atmosphere and the OEX recorder, columbias equivalent of a flight data recorder was recording sensor data, we also had transmissions from the shuttle itself to piece together what was happening onboard. At this point the shuttle was doing what was known as roll reversals, this is basically where the shuttle banks from side to side, in a way its a way to mitigate the heat that would be starting to build up on the shuttle as it entered the earths atmosphere at hypersonic speeds, think mach 25. But unknown to the crew of the columbia she was starting to shed pieces, but it was nothing serious enough that the crew would have noticed. As columbia entered the earths atmosphere the leading edge of the wings and the nose were experiencing temperatures that reached 2800 fahrenheit. Now on a normal renetery the TPS or the thermal protective system would well protect the shuttle but due to the gaping hole in columbias wing that the protective system was not doing a whole lot of protecting. Superheated gasses were now being funneled into the left wing of columbia at unimaginable speeds. The wing of the space shuttle was starting to lose its properties. This would not be good. At 1:49 and 32 seconds GMT a roll to the right was made to manage energy, Then at 1:51 and 46 seconds the first sign of trouble, the shuttle was starting to yaw a bit to the left, the yaw values were still within limits of previous shuttle flights but this was concerning - Наука та технологія
I knew and worked with each of these Astronauts and they all were as friendly as could be and beyond intelligent. I was with them in a small ceremony before they left for the cape...I was numb for weeks after this happened, I knew Husband and McCool best, both were superior pilots.
Maybe you should ask if NASA was so allegedly smart- why did it not have superior non self-damaging heat ablation? Why no entirely automatic landing procedure (as per Buran) or most important- impervious crew safety cell if chance quite high of catastrophic failure of many systems in re-entry?
USA killed at least 6 times as many future scientists in foreign wars of aggression. You could have had the entire Middle East eating out of your hand for 1/100th the cost of your stupid wars, no US casualty aside from sore backs lifting bags of gold had bin Laden and al-Qaeda served up you you in pink bikinis.
But people like you, like in NASA, like ricket an space nerds bury their heads in the sand, ignore the rampant theft murder and corruption until it finally anecdotally effects you.
Nothingbthe US builds will ever eqyal good old reliable Soyuz and you idiot Americans cut off your nose to spite your face despite if Mexico acting the same way as Ukraine- there would be no debate- no international criticism- no care about UNSC- no shts given- Mexico would be flattened from Juarez to Mexico City, everyone collateral damage.
I actually teared up listening to this. I’m sure they were great people to have the privilege they had.
Columbia destroys me every time. I can feel a bit of your pain knowing way too many who have died in aircraft, but regardless I can't say enough about how much I feel for you. Also I'm glad you were privileged to work with these epic humans.
You know none of that is true. UA-cam. Lump of psychopathic liars.
Robert Lee, that must have been a horrible experience for you. I’m sorry for the loss of your friends. I admire the work you all do to help us better understand the universe & how small we all are in that scope. 🙏❤️
R.I.P. That courageous crew. I am disabled, retired commercial pilot, and that video almost had me in tears.
I just rewatched, and I am in tears.
I'm 70 and have heard my share of this story, never have I seen it so well presented. Factual, respectful, informative. Everything I would want if this were one of my family that had been lost in this disaster. RIP to all of Columbia's crew and peace to their families and friends.
"factual" ROFL
*TRUMP 2024*
Work on the Life Science Division as a NASA contractor. One of my many responsibilities was downloading data from a modified Sony Walkman cassette recorder that recorded two of the Challenger astronauts' vital signs such as their heartbeat, blood pressure, temperature, etc.. during each shuttle ascent. NASA wanted to know how the human body reacted during the shuttle ascent. After each shuttle flight, I would transfer the data from each cassette tape to a 9 track reel tape and send it via NASA interoffice mail to a scientist at Goddard. After the explosion, when NASA was requesting anyone with information that could help with the investigation, I went to my supervisor to suggest we should inform the Challenger investigation committee of this Life Science Project. He informed me that the astronaut families do not need to know when their loved ones died, whether it was during the Challenger explosion or when the crew cabin hit the ocean surface. Each data point recorded on that modified Sony Walkman cassette tape also recorded the timestamp for each datapoint, down to the very millisecond (GMT).
@@MikeYork-bn1mtagreed
I was stationed at Patrick AFB (Cape Canaveral AFS) at the time (2001-2004) and many of us in the Air Force were frustrated with NASA for refusing our help. We could’ve taken high-res imaging of the Columbia on orbit to check for wing damage. No cost to NASA, it was just a capability we had in AFSPC. NASA refused. It would’ve been very possible to send up Atlantis as a rescue mission and then land Columbia unmanned.
In fact, Colombia could’ve been left in orbit and a future mission might’ve been able to use a repair kit on the wing, and allow Columbia to land autonomously, saving the orbiter completely.
I want to emphasize this point: *everyone* knew by Day-2 about the foam (initially thought to be a large chunk of ice, but pretty quickly figured out it was a large section of insulating foam from the ET) striking the left wing during ascent. We were concerned about tiles being damaged, leading to a bleed through on deorbit, which is essentially what happened. Except it appears not only were tiles damaged, but an actual holes was punched through the leading edge of the left wing
It was devastating emotionally because we felt very connected to the astronauts and it felt like it was an *avoidable* loss.
The Columbia orbiter would’ve been lost either way, but the crew had a very good chance to be saved using Atlantis, if only NASA culture wasn’t so screwed up.
The truth is nothing really changed about NASA‘s culture from the January 1986 challenger accident. They never fixed the problem with their broken safety culture and stove-piped chain of operations. Low level engineers feared exactly this scenario, but management level engineers, and NASA executive staff totally disregarded the possibility. Arrogance! Pure arrogance! Again, it would have cost literally nothing for the Air Force to use our ground-based optics to confirm the integrity of Columbia on orbit. The resolution available would have left no doubt as to whether the wing had been damaged. The only “cost“ would’ve been if damage was suspected, NASA would’ve spent about $200 million to achieve a rapid launch of Atlantis. They refuse to even consider it.
I had a conversation with my brother (and Air Force test pilot), while the Colombia was on orbit. He and I grew up, loving the space shuttle, and we commented how pissed off we were going to be if the Columbia was destroyed and 7 crew lost because of NASA’s broken culture.
I’m embarrassed to say this, in hindsight, but at the time, my brother and I joked that we didn’t care so much about the crew, but at the Columbia belonged in the Smithsonian air and space Museum, so we would be furious if the orbiter was lost on reentry. It was a joke, of course. We cared about the seven astronauts as much as anyone, but being lifelong aviation, in space fanboys, we had a particular affinity for the Columbia. The first into space.
I had actually been stationed at Edwards Air Force Base in California when the Columbia landed a couple years prior. It brought tears to my eyes, having grown up, watching Young & Crippen, and Lousma & Fullerton flying those first two missions, and landing at Edwards, on the dry lake bed.
Shows how Nasa is run off the blood of humans, wow nd no one makes videos & investigates this but even i know about the military's offer to help
I know that NASA knew of the chunk of foam that struck Columbia’s left wing during the first phase of launch, and thus would eventually cause a disastrous and lethal outcome for the Orbiter and its valiant crew should any attempt to de-orbit and reenter Earth’s atmosphere be made.
Columbia should have maintained orbit while Atlantis was quickly readied for launch and sent up to rescue the Columbia crew.
If a future attempt to repair the damage on Columbia proved unsuccessful, then it could at the least have been remotely de-orbited and brought in over the ocean. Meanwhile the Columbia crew with the skeleton Atlantis rescue crew would already be safely back on Earth.
NASA’s murderous hypocrisy knows no bounds; they killed the Challenger astronauts when they were warned repeatedly not to launch, and they’ll keep on slaughtering astronauts at whim unless their Moon shot is scrapped and they also stop sending crews to the overdue-for-mothball ISS.
I’m all about space exploration should it be done after disposing of bureaucratic NASA and returning it back to the integrity and outright brilliance of what was experienced with 1960s - 1985 NASA.
Godspeed to all those brave men and women space explorers gone on before us, I shall behold Father God in Heaven with you when He sends His Beloved Son Jesus to catch up His Bride.❤
@@shashahineha-weh9467if you believe in GOD then you should know that space travel is not possible. We live under a Firmament that cannot be penetrated. The highest anyone has ever flown is around 62 miles above the ground. The space shuttle is nothing more than a glider that achieved most of its altitude from a piggyback ride on a the top of a specially designed military jumbo jet airplane and then once detached the shuttle hit the throttle to gain as much altitude as possible and that's around 62 miles above the ground. Then on the gradual glide back down to the ground the pilot put the shuttle into an increased downward dive to make the shuttle pick up lots of speed to make it appear that the shuttle was coming from space and it overheated and burned up the shuttle program ended after that. It's because if you have extensive conversation about it you will realize that there's no way to go to space and then re enter the earths atmosphere. Because if all that were True. When do you pull the chutes. They say the shuttle was traveling in space at 17,000 MPH. How do you slow it down. When do they pull the chutes. Do you understand. Do they wait until they are in the Earth's atmosphere and then pull the chutes? Or do they pull the chutes while they are still in space. It's all lies. The mistake was allowing the shuttle to pick up way too much speed while gliding down from a high altitude. Under the Firmament
And it's not like NASA didn't know that something hitting the orbiter on launch could be a problem. They had one hell of a shot across the bow on STS-27! And they missed the point completely!!
The truth is they didn't need your help because nobody needed help c'mon you know this the shuttles are not gliders nobody died not here not in the challenger not anybody
The one that broke me was when you mentioned how the pilot attempted to restart the APU, in the slim slim hope it might've helped, not knowing the devastation that has befell the orbiter.
Keep trying until you can no longer try.
When you've breathed your last,
And your heart no longer beats.
Rest in the knowledge that
You've tried your very best.
Godspeed, Columbia & crew.
Per Aspera Ad Astra.
I don't care what it is. FORCE it to kill you. Amen, man.
Yep, fantastic way to go - must have been a thrill ride - can't imagine which was more exciting, this or Challenger.
@@Chris_Sheridan How old are you?
These men and women have pushed the boundary of what is known from the unknown that others may live to the benefit of man, not their corruptible selfish ends benefitting theirselves alone to the detriment of their fellows. It is good to know your limitations then push beyond to benefit the whole species not just the select few.. the ideal, YES.. HA[HOOYAAH and ALOHA].. PEACE 2UALL.. GOD said it SO..
@@sonnygoc-ong7011 .. so what has the Columbia crash benefited the entire human species??
You haven't a clue, do you?
I'm related to Rick Husband. Dad knew him well, both AF pilots, and attended the launch. RIP Col. Husband. You're truly an American hero.
These guys and gals are always the best as they train very hard, for these missions. Being an astronaut has similar results , in terms of survival as the people who climb K2 or other high mountains. The death rate is somewhere around 20%. One out of five ? May not be quiet as high with astronauts, but close, if we include the ones who died, during training, like Grisson and his team. It is too high.
Don't bullshit.
@@linanicolia1363are you talking about Gus grissom? his family said they came to his house and confiscated everything he had his family said he was murdered?
I worked as a software programmer on the Space Shuttle Program from 1982 - 2002. For almost that entire time, I worked on the ground software that processed the telemetry data received from the Shuttle. I was promoted out of the software job just a few weeks before the loss of Columbia. Because of my experience, I was asked to modify the telemetry software to aid in the investigation of the accident (so that numerous replays of the last few minutes of telemetry data received on the ground could be performed). I have so many stories from that day and the few weeks following. Such a sad time for the NASA community.
I wish I could hear them all. Have you ever considered writing them down for an article or a book? I have seen people I know do something similar and actually publish them on Amazon…might be a good way to share your experiences. It’s all history, and valuable.
@@ronjon7942No, I've really never given that much thought. I'm not sure very many people would be interested.
Man, I'll never forget. I was at Texas World Speedway for an SCCA race when one of the guys I was there with pointed out the shuttle Columbia overhead as it was coming in for landing we're watching it come in from landing when dude says "I don't think it's supposed to do that" as it went from one shuttle with one vapor trail into a bunch of smaller pieces with a bunch of smaller vapor trails. It literally broke up directly over our heads while we were watching.
I’m so sorry you had to witness such a tragedy! RIP to everyone involved in the Columbia mission!
That's incredible.
For some reason I was home when they broke in on this story on TV I stood in my living room and watched what you saw with your own eyes the fragments just seemed to travel on and on.
That was the moment when they locked the door, at the ground control. It had become the scene of an accident.
SO
That is surreal.
Imagine spraining your back then immediatly trying to do calculus. Now multiply that strain by 50 and your inside a burning machine. It's insane that the commander and mission specialists were still trying to recover the shuttle during the breakup on re-entry.
The will to survive is extremely strong. May they all RIP.
Heartfelt and appropriate. I remember cooking breakfast and hearing the reporting on NPR that something had occurred with the craft. The updates were increasingly more concerning until it was clear they were lost. Phone call from my dad who worked on the program, in tears, confirmed the loss. Sad day.
Same. Someone called our place to tell us to put the tv on.
I still have the next days newspaper and the magazines that covered it.
back then starting your day with npr wasn't a bad idea
@@ChicagoMel23that must’ve been pretty scary to be told that only a couple years after 9/11. “Oh god here we go again”
@@jgunther3398starting your day with news in general is a much worse idea in the current decade. I’d much rather pretend politics doesn’t exist for a couple hours
As angry as I am and always will be at NASA for not taking the opportunity during the 15 day mission to actually check if Columbia was damaged!! I am seriously impressed with Columbia's capabilities. She had a compromised heat shield, a wing that was disintegrating as it melted, pieces flying off. And she still almost made it through the heating region. I mean, she was close! And the amount of control inputs that she made to counteract the drag is phenomenal!
Ok, I’m just Jane Doe but that is what I was thinking. Thanks for confirming. What Columbia endured before breaking apart was Incredible
I clearly remember the images and words of the astronaut from Israel reporting from space about serious abnormalities like loss of refractory tiles and deformations on the left wing and also on the left side of the fuselage. How easily the world forgets.
@@leonardodominguez3491 ?!!! You’re kidding! That’s AWFUL sad
@@allysonh6410 I was in shock. I can't imagine what was going on this man's mind. Let me see if I can find the clip.
@@leonardodominguez3491Please do!
Very informative, they use the OMS in a powerful burst to re-enter the atmosphere at 25,000 mph. Once they break away from they're fiery cocoon, they perform the HAC, Heading Alignment Cone to bleed off energy to land, because the orbiter is basically a glider when landing.🇺🇸🇺🇸 The fact that the crew troubleshooted all the way to the end is a chivalrous display of professional skill and talent.
Great job on this. I was awake in San Francisco on Feb 1, 2003, watching CNN's coverage of Columbia's return. She was my favorite Shuttle and losing her and this crew was heartbreaking. I wear a shuttle charm on a chain around my neck in tribute to the two crews and orbiters lost during the Shuttle era.
Very good of you to wear that charm. Respect to you.
❤️
That is SO very COOL of you to wear a charm.. there is always a lesson in humility if we listen with our hearts.....
I was awake outside in Mill Valley California and saw the flamed out shuttle.Later that month I found what may have been a piece of its debris at the beach. I had a friend at NASA and he submitted it. I never found out what the piece was. Shame I think the ground crew knew what would happen.
@@terrymcdougall8153 Oh wow, how harrowing that must have been. I can't even imagine what or hope that must have felt.
The explosion woke me up, but I didn't know it until several hours later.
I was living in Dallas. The shock wave from the explosion shook my sliding glass window hard enough to wake me, but by the time I actually woke up, the sound was over. I never heard the door vibrating. Several hours later, when I heard the news and learned what time the explosion occurred, I pieced everything together and realized why I woke up so suddenly that Saturday morning.
Wasn't really an explosion....more of a hypersonic aerodynamic breakup.
Would there have been a shock wave?
@@marcywalters524 A shock wave is the only thing that could have rattled the many doors and windows that were rattled in Texas that morning, so, yeah.
@@rivercrimea4849 Gotcha. I believe it! I just wasn’t sure with the way it broke up and I just took for granted how small it looks on screen compared to the distance away and the absolute power involved.
Thanks for taking the time to answer my inane question!
This will really "wake you up" ua-cam.com/video/IgQ3ekcvyRA/v-deo.html
I've watched several other documentaries on this very topic, including the Nat Geo TV presentation. None of them even reached anywhere close to what yours did here. I got goosebumps watching this with tears in my eyes. I'm very impressed with your research and thoroughness here. In fact, I am not certain I have ever even left a UA-cam comment in over a decade and a half here, but your production has truly inspired me. Thank you!
That’s a really nice comment to the original poster. It’s always nice to get positive feedback. Unfortunately I’m sure it was a very emotional video for him to make. RIP to Columbia 😢
The shuttle program has always fascinated me. One year, in Florida where I lived, I got up early to watch a shuttle launch. I lived in the west side of the state. It was dark out and my eldest daughter was visiting. She came out with me skeptical we were going to see much. Both had our coffee in hand. Standing in the street and looking to the east we saw the bright white orb in the early morning sky climbing to space. She was gobsmacked watching it and I was just praying and cheering her on. One of my best memories.
I feel like I want to cry. I have to admit I was shocked when the video stopped half way through. My son was able to find the message you had put in chat about needing to reboot. I am happy that fixed it. This is an amazing video. Thank you so much for it. Such a sad conclusion to such a promising future. Blessings to all.
What a drama queen..
Grow the hell up
I feel the same way!
when i read this at the beginning of the vid i was like wut but now that I've finished it i def got a lil misty eyed at the end 😢
I feel like crying too. If only the shuttle crew heeded the original shuttle test pilot’s warnings over and over again to reduce reentry speeds, we wouldn’t have suffered such disasters to hear,see,and read about! Over and over again!
You should not have to reboot ever
I remember this mission well. We live in Anne Arundel County in Maryland and pilot Willie McCool was a graduate of the Naval Academy. There was a very nice feature article about him in the Annapolis Capital newspaper prior to the mission. We were so happy for him for this mission. That made the loss of Columbia and her crew even sadder for the people in our area. Prayers for the repose of the souls of Columbia’s crew, and for the families and friends they left behind.
I didn't realize Columbia fired it's RCS thrusters during it's last descent. I learn something new every time I watch one of these videos.
That was why the shuttle's plasma trail suddenly brightened. In the first video of the breakup when the guy zooms in you can see the thrusters firing. In all probability Husband and McCool would have seen the RCS saturate and known instantly they were doomed. That didn't stop them from doing their best.
I remember when this happened. You could/can buy pieces of the thermal tiles as souvenirs, but after the incident, the prices for them on Ebay shot up extremely high. It seemed in really bad taste to me, even though it wasn't intentional on the parts of the sellers. It's amazing that the US space program STILL to this day hasn't fully recovered from this.
I have seen many videos about this Columbia launch, thru the crew during re-entry.
MACI, this fills in so many blanks that were missing in those other videos.
You did great!!!
Thank you and thanks for including the crew segment and what they did. 😢
I've seen at least a dozen different videos on this. What were the many blanks he filled in ?
I have always wondered about this too! They always just say "and then the shuttle broke up" and I'm always like...this documentary has so much science and you're just going to end it with "then it broke up." Also I've always wanted to understand what the crew went through
It really does a disservice to these astronauts that they don't tell this story
I mean it's really hard to figure out what exactly happened in what order once communication systems started failing. Even in this video, it's not quite clear what exactly happened, like "within 15 seconds..." that's a loooong time in this situation.
So maybe some older documentaries just didn't have as much data available. The video that he took some parts of (at 8:02 for example) was uploaded very recently. Maybe that was the first effort to put this data together in a comprehensible fashion.
Seriously, knowing how hard they continued to fight despite the circumstances is both terribly sad, and incredibly inspiring.
there is actual video that survived from what happened inside, that lasts quite a long time past the blackout (I believe the camera went until stage five).... it was on UA-cam, but that got taken down for ethical reasons (which I can understand if disagree with)
apparently, one of the NASA wreckage search party found it partially intact & restorable inside the molten blob of the recorder that fell through someone's roof)
I believe they also found a fossilized/carbonized remains of a skull and helmet...
(the documentary was about the forensic and NTSB style work post-crash)
They’ve said the crew was probably awake for 90 seconds as it was breaking up. That’s a long time if you think about it.
I was employed by Fuji Film in Houston, TX when this occurred. For a whole month I worked in the photo lab at Johnson Space Center. I saw pictures of all debris and items from this incident. I feel a great sense of loss in the lives lost, the lessons learned and the risks of space exploration.
Beautiful, factual and respectable, nicely done sir. The crew of Columbia would have been proud to watch this and I'm sure their families would be able to see this without any regret.
Seriously! .. without regret?
I used to be involved in wildland fire. They mobilized hordes of firefighters to search a huge area of Texas looking for pieces. I talked with some of them later at training schools and etc. As I remember, one of these people found a crucial fragment that helped determine what happened.
Excellent presentation. You had a lot of information I'd never heard before.
Also rip to the two search personnel that were killed when their helicopter crashed🙏🏻
I find it sadly disheartening, that the glue used to attach the tiles was, some thought, inferior due to its environmentally safe design! When are we going to tell these people to "put a sock into it", when it comes to serious issues where environmental concerns should be the last thing on our minds!!!
I concur! Our heroes deserve the BEST PRODUCT that WORKS! This environmental lobby should have no place in life and death situations.!
"Exactly", this is "one" aircraft. The Pilot's lives should be the number one priority. It's not like we are going to polute the Earth with 1 Shuttle.
I am sure most all substances that would be considered "environmentally" harmful would have been recovered.
If anyone wants to see an " environmentally" poluted area, just go to Singapore, or the deep Southeast parts of China. If anything is going to hurt the World, it's going to be these two places. JMO
@@LiPo5000 i take it you have never been to Singapore😂
WOW, what a galvanizing explanation of this terrible tragedy. Now I know what happened. Thank you for a clear, well spoken narrative. Congratulations!
Really sorry for the crew being so close to finishing their mission but then dying. Really sad.
They fought very very hard though. And thats something to admire. I believe had they not lost their hydraulics, these amazing folks might have pulled it off. God bless them and their families.
😂
I love all of my White brothers and sisters.
Excellent break down and description of what occurred in those last minutes and seconds. The details of what was happening with all of the on-board systems is intriguing. The mention of how good the members of the crew were and their attempts to actually troubleshoot the chaos that was going on around them is a great point. What brave souls. RIP
Someone from my then hometown of Bishop went out to try to get photos of the space shuttle as it sped over. As it went over the White Mountains he saw pieces coming off the shuttle. It alarmed him a little, but when he got home to Bishop, he heard that the shuttle had broken up over Texas.
White Mountains…in AZ?? Just curious.
Great video as always! Damn, to think they were doing everything they could until the end... Major respect to the crew!
My Army helicopter flight instructor told me that if he was ever in a fatal aircraft failure, rescue would find his hands on the flight controls. This it exactly what training does to you. You keep trying until it’s over one way or the other.
Seconds can feel like eternity. We all know that. They did not vanish in one quick strike. There were seconds of utter fear, until the brutal end when they got torn apart. The reality of the space program is unpredictable, and respect is all we can show to these brave souls.
I much appreciate the 4:3 upload. Most people just add black rectangles to the sides and upload in 16:9 anyway and when watching on a CRT TV I get black borders all around.
Besides, your usual content is merely awesome, but this one is off the scale.
I started watching the channel when the video was still a slideshow of airplane photos with a kickass narration on top, but here we have a nerdgasm of diagrams, simulation and explanation with a kickass narration on top.
I felt similarly towards the Challenger accident back in 1986, because it was a defining moment in my childhood. I too, have always been a space nerd. Thank you for this video, the Columbia accident was VERY sad as well. 😭
The pilots in Challenger were alert until they hit the water, when they died instantly. Their air packs had been activated from the back by likely Judy Resnick. They had air all the way down while the others had likely passed out. Their last moments were printed in the Houston Chronicle, as, at that time I lived in Houston and felt more connected to what went on in NASA. That article was a copy of the audio , that ended up printed. I wish I had kept that paper. I did not.
@@linanicolia1363Yes. Fortunately for those who did not have air. It takes scant seconds to go unconscious after the depressurization. That’s my hope, anyway.
Thank You for such an 'in~depth' forensic analysis. I've never heard such detailed accounting of Columbia. 👍
I was living in Huntsville, AL until 2012. I was there when both the Challender and Columbia shuttles were lost. It was like the whole city had been punched in the gut and took more than a few weeks to recover. For those that don't know Marshall Space Flight Center in in Huntsville.
Great video, and a fitting tribute.
My GF went to Space Camp there when she was a kid. I spent a few months in the area in the late 90’s and a lot of people were NASA associated.
The challenger exploded as we watched the launch outside of our school back in 86. I'll never forget seeing that even though I was only 8 at the time.
Same here in the Houston area with Johnson Space Center. I lived in Amarillo (Rick Husband's hometown) when Challenger happened. I was here in Houston, 5 miles from JSC for Columbia. Everyone here was in mourning, our little town is across the highway, a bedroom community with many NASA employees. It was rough for several weeks. Amarillo's international airport was renamed the Rick Husband International Airport in honor of him.
Yup, it was the same here at the cape. This area is a "rocket town," and most everybody either works at the cape or knows someone who does.
I was 4 (not even) when the Challenger accident happened. I still remember the image on TV, I didn't understand what it was, I understood it years later, but by the reaction of my parents, I knew it was very serious, that image was burnt in me forever.
When Columbia happened, I really couldn't believe it.
FANTASTIC work man! That’s exactly what i wanted but didn’t get from any documentary out there. Massive kudos.
Great presentation. We watched Columbia as she had already begun to breakup from our Dallas home patio. I knew something was terribly wrong and assumed the Shuttle was coming apart. Going back in time to January 28th, 1986 i was working at Rockwell as a young microwave engineer. Challenger had exploded 73 seconds into flight and it was first thought the 'O-Ring' might have failed on the SRB for such a cold morning. America has lost 17 brave souls in Apollo and the STS Shuttle programs. There will undoubfly be more lives lost with SpaceX and the new Artemis Moon Missions in the near future. However, the people that train for this type of work are the brightest and bravest people on Earth. They accept the risks.
Godspeed to all.
I was working in the mall in Amarillo during Challenger. I got a call from a friend who was also into the space program, crying that "they're all gone". It took me a bit to get it out of her about Challenger and I looked at the girl working with me and said "I'm gone for a few" and ran down to the Foot Locker where there was a TV. I stood crying, watching the coverage until I had to go back and do my job. I wasn't much use for the day (and I was manager that shift), because I couldn't get that out of my mind.
For the rest of the shuttle program, I would start holding my breath when they would say "Go for throttle up." and not relax until it was well away. I don't think I'll ever be able to watch that footage again.
The publicly admitted catastrophic failure rate was 1/100
A JSC engineer set me straight it was really calculated at 1/35
Had they admitted this early on there would have been no space shuttle flights
That was very detailed.Thank you for your video,it has explained this sad accident so well.They did launches before where tiles had been struck,this time luck wasnt on their side....
It took me a while to decide to watch this video. I like the respectful way you handled it. Thank you for this video.
Far and away the best educational and technical view of the tragedy. Very well explained by you and modeled by the video aspect. I'm actually stunned at how well you broke this down in a way that could be understood by layperson but not condescending to the people who are involved. Bravo young man.
Thank you for this detailed timeline! I to consumed all the information I could about this tragic event from an early age. Your video is the first that gave such a detailed sequence of events. Also, thank you for treating this tragedy and the heroes that died in it with so much respect! Very well done.
20:51
Can you imagine the fear the moment the nose started pitching up and you realized you had no control whatsoever?
They knew the risk and accepted it !
Thats all i can think about. You know there was some time, maybe 5 seconds maybe almost a minute or more, where those astronauts knew it was the end. That is very scary to think of :(
There was only seconds. They died in an instant. They were travelling at mach 23@@variable7833
@@variable7833 It's definitely the most horrifying yet intriguing part of this disaster. Wondering what was going on in those poor souls heads during the final seconds they all realized they were in serious trouble. It's unimaginable, which makes it intriguing.
@@wendaltvedt4673 i do think some would have been way too snapped into their training that they were not even thinking of death. Only how to get the spacecraft back. Untill the end
Brings tears to my eyes to this day. A bunch of us in southwest Oklahoma were outside with our telescopes and binoculars just hoping for a glimpse. Then someone told us what was on tv. Big love for them forever and for all the others who have soared where the rest of us couldn’t.
I hope this comment isn’t inappropriate for this thread, but I love Dancing in the Rain, too! 🥰
I was in my backyard in Euless, Texas, trying to get a look at the reentry when I heard something might be wrong. I swear I heard a boom as it passed over. Very sad day. Godspeed Columbia.
Wonderful video. This includes all of the nitty gritty engineering analysis. As always: well done.
I was 14 when this happened.
From what I understand, Columbia had unique instrumentation in the left wing leftover from the SILTS pod and this helped draw a clearer path of heat damage than could've been understood with the other orbiters.
I distinctly remember watching this happen live. I was in middle school, and my Dad got us up to see the re-entry on Saturday morning. In fact, I almost remember it being a school assignment or something...for us, it was just before 9:00 AM EST.
Thanks for the excellent analysis, I learned a lot and you did a great job of paying tribute to the heroism and bravery of the crew.
You're likely correct that the Columbia tragedy affected the design of the SpaceX Dragon. If you read the Crew Survival Report that came out in 2008, two factors that were listed as probably fatal to the crew were 1) non-conforming helmets that damaged the wearer's skull during the velocities the Columbia endured during the catastrophic event, and b) damage caused to the crew's upper bodies because they were essentially unrestrained during the catastrophic event. The report recommended conforming helmets and seats with more effective restraints. I'm glad these are being implemented by SpaceX now.
When it comes to engineering most new safety rules are written in blood.
The only problem there is NASA picked the biggest bonehead to lead the effort 👌. Still haven't learned from mistakes in the past!
Eeeeh would they have survived with those measures?
Oh yeah. Better helmets. That's a crucial lesson from Columbia. Don't forget about the restraints. Without those, no chance. But, golly, with a better helmet, and restraints, all good. Never mind the fact that the shuttle was disintegrating at 2649 km/h. I'm joking, I'm joking (wtf ?).
If they had better restraints and suits, the only thing that would have happened is their last moments would have been prolonged and become more horrific. There is no way to survive reentry if the craft breaks up, no matter what suit they're wearing or how well they're strapped in.
Good to see you cover this after watching Scott Manley's video on this. Space missions are very safe now but we should not overlook the danger astronauts face when flying. They should never be forgotten, rip.
Safe? Never say that. It takes a lot of guts to sit on top of all that fuel and let them light it underneath you. No sir, safety is a hope, not a reality.
Safer.
yeah, as long as the clowns at nasa don't screw you
That’s such a heartbreaking story. Thanks for doing such a comprehensive telling of the tragic story.
McCool knew what was going on, but kept quiet, knowing the inevitable would occur soon and hopefully quick. The nervous chatter in the second row indicated they knew something was wrong also.
McCool kept his cool.
@@davidharrison7014 becàuse he was so cool....may he fly high now as an àngel ❤
Nervous chatter? No these were clueless about what was happening and even how to don their gloves fussing with that. Etc
My family in East Texas had space shuttle pieces raining down on them all over the danged place--and they weren't big pieces. The shuttle took a fairly rural pathway across Texas, but it's a wonder no one on the ground was hurt.
I remember the day this happened. I was at my best friends home in Lancaster, TX. The reports were coming in on all TV stations. Hours later, an announcement was aired, asking the public to please stay away from any of the fallen debris from the shuttle. They were not sure what touching the pieces of the Space Shuttle would do after entering the atmosphere. Upon hearing this, there was a loud sound in the area near my friends home. There were neighbors who went out to see the wreakage and wanted to cash in on the devestating tragedy.
@@daniellearneberg3970Yeah I remember that. People were trying to ransom off pieces of the shuttle they found and got shamed into giving it back. That and the threat of the FBI getting involved took down the eBay listings pretty quick after that.
There's a great recent video from Scott Manley which I highly recommend for Columbia's disaster.
The audio is much better now, thank you! 😄
Thank you!! So well done!! Wow, watching this really tore me up. I wasn’t quite expecting that. I’m from Lubbock, Texas and went to Coronado High School with Willie McCool. He was one year ahead of me. He ran track and I still remember him and he was impressive even then. I was watching the re-entry on the news on WFAA in Fort Worth that morning and it was just unbelievable when they realized what was happening. Rest in peace Columbia crew.
How terribly tragic for the whole crew and all they left behind. Thank you for sharing this very in-depth review of this disaster. Much appreciated this technical dissemination of the break-up of the shuttle.
Your breakdown is the most detailed description of this tragedy I've come across. My stomach sinks when I try to imagine what those 7 experienced. Admin note: at 14:35 there's a spelling mistake at the bottom. I've watched your video several times and just noticed. Wanted to give you a heads up. Keep up the good work!
Word should be landing? Not Lamding... typo
Also all the Scott münley not Manley
Absolutely THRILLED when I saw that you did a video on orbiter Columbia. As usual, you did such a fantastic job!
'Recovered tapes' from on board, wow.
One of your best episodes. Thanks for your awesome content.
I was in Florida at the time, awaiting Columbia's landing. The heartbreak 💔 was unimaginable. Godspeed and RIP heroes. 🙏
What makes them heroes?
@@guerillagorilla4423They are heros because they risked their lives in the pursuit of knowledge to further mankind and paid the ultimate price.
Something someone like you would never understand, never mind actually do!
Such a harrowing accident. "Normal" aviation has a large sample size when it comes to aviation, leaving pilots with knowledge and emergency plans built on previous accidents. Columbia's crew didn't have that - but they did their very best till the very end
They weren’t even told that could have actually been a problem right? They were told foam hit the wing but they weren’t instructed to go out and inspect the wing.
Up to a point, this constant rehashing of 'what their last moments were like' becomes macabre. The ship lost its integrity; one second they were fine, the next millisecond they were all dead, killed in a heartbeat. I'm relieved to know it happened that quick, but what else is there to know?
Can't control a speeding bullet.......
I remember that morning. The local radio coverage was even more brainless than usual, it took about 15 minutes to get from "Something bad happened" to "That something was aerospace related" to "Oh f**k..."
"Look at the chunks coming off of it!"
RIP to the Columbia Crew and the rest of the lost souls that passed.
Thank you for all your research and analysis that it took to present a logical and interesting story of a tragedy.
Thank you for fixing the audio! amazing video as always !
Superb video, and a fitting tribute. That was tough to watch, but I'm glad I did. Thank you.
What a terrifying thought to go through that knowing there is nothing you can do and you are probably not going to survive it
As fellow space shuttle nerd i thank you🙏🏾. I saw her first flight when i was 8 and it was the most awsome and incredible thing. Losing Columbia and Challenger has been very tough on me bacause i love the space program and all the good people that worked on it.
Thanks again🙏🏾.
Excellent.
I only have one wee issue:
Elevons vs ailerons.
And what I saw is that there was disagreement between left and right eleven trim that was growing.
The Commander and Pilot knew what was going on. Hopefully they didn’t tell the rest of the crew.
Great presentation. Like many you filled in a lot of blanks. I was watching challenger live when it happened. It was a shock. This accident was different. You told the story with precision.
I was watching Challenger from outside my office in Winter Park, FL, about 55 miles from the pad. As soon as we saw the big explosion and the SRBs go crazy, we all ran back inside and turned on a radio. One of the bosses ran home and got a portable TV. We did not get much programming done that day. RIP Challenger and crew, and RIP Columbia and crew. Also, RIP Apollo 1 and crew. GOD bless and comfort their families and loved ones.
That was fascinating. One of the best videos I've watched on UA-cam. Unbelievable work!
This just popped up in my UA-cam feed, and I'm so glad. Really well done. Thank you.
May they rest in peace. I remember the day this happened. I remember when Challenger was lost.
Good people all lost but even in tragic circumstances, NASA stepped up and learned from it.
This was an excellent, informative, sensitive account of such a terrible tragedy. Thank you.
Cool Willie flew that ship 'tiil there was no ship left to fly.😔
I watched the news and the live coverage back in the day. A truly devastating tragedy that stays with me today and will as long as I live. Rest in peace.
Very well done. I appreciate the deep dive into how she broke up.
No space suit in the world is going to protect you against a break up like this.
How astute of you
@@bradsanders407lol
Or any that we know of in space.
Especially without a parachute.
Not to mention the Columbia report stating most of the burns and injuries found on the remains happened post Mortem. Their bodies flailed in their seats after the depressurization until break up. After, once the cabin had fully broken apart, the speed at which they were going immediately denuded their bodies, at altitude. Some of the remnants of the ACES suits were found melted into their skin. The metal ring that the helmets locked into were ripped away, over their heads, causing a distinct neck and lower skull fracture.
At least two, on the lower deck, had bracing injuries on their legs and wrists.
I read the entire report. It’s filled with details like this. One of the most haunting thing was references to autopsy photos, not included in the public report. Detailed information of burn patterns, wind sheer characteristic injuries, even all the way down to cellular structures being damaged from the depressurization event.
Out of respect for the families, only a certain few people at NASA knew what injuries were on which astronauts, and which remains were from which astronaut when found out in the debris zone.
The most haunting thing? They knew. Or, at least had some amount of knowledge something was very wrong. The only saving grace was the depressurization event rendered them all immediately unconscious and killed them not long after. None were alive to see the flight and lower deck breakup.
Haven’t stopped thinking about this for years. At least once a day.
Fantastic breakdown! I’ve waited along time to see this detail. Thank you!
I remember when this happened. This is really great detail. Very well done! Looking forward to more.
Love your channel, gave you a like and am leaving a comment, but having lived through this, I just can't watch, even to this day. I'm sure you treated this tragedy with dignity and respect.
What do you mean you lived through this?
@@giggiddy Probably that they had followed the incident as it was occuring and saw it happen live and likely still hold unpleasant memories from that day.
I remember the weather channel's Bob Charles announcing that something had happened to Columbia on re-entry. He had a sad, shocked look I've never forgotten.
I too as a kid was fascinated with spaceflight. Being much older I imagine; I was a HUGE fan of the Apollo missions. 20 July 1969 is one of those proverbial "where were you when" days for me. I did follow the shuttle program quite a bit and remember the loss of Challenger and Columbia well. Growing up near Sacramento, Kalifornistan we would here the engine testing at Aerojet where they work on propulsion systems for the shuttles. Mind you I was 15 miles from that facility and those engines sounded like they were next door! One last note in reference to pilot McCool. His name could not have been more perfect. When faced with tasks unseen ever, the guy was like ice as things crumbled around him. Godspeed to those who perished in the name of science. In 2011, likely because of the tie to the program at Aerojet, the 747 piggyback "final flight" flew directly over the base I work at. While proud to see her only last time, I was saddened not only by the end of the program, but a fitting memorial who gave all to see the program succeed.
It must have been quite an experience to see the final flight in 2011. I was very emotional about the end of an era, too. Where is Kalifornistan? Is it near Sacramento?
I was an 80s kid but seeing Apollo 13 in the 90s got me to read as much on Apollo as I could.
@@SomeplaceScary I think he called it “kaliforniastan” as a joke about California
@@SomeplaceScary Kalifornistan is may sarcastic moniker for California. Now, it's a socialists dream land. I actually live in a suburb of Sacramento about 15 minutes south of KMHR. I grew up on that base and KMCC as a kid in the 70's & 80's. I work at KMCC for Northrup-Grumman, so I get my does of aviation every day. Along with us there's Coast Guard unit, CalFire, Reach Aeromedical, Atlas Air and a few other tenants. A lot of general aviation too. We were lucky enough to see 45 when he came here to mock governor Screwsome about the fires and epic mismanagement of wild lands. SO awesome to see AF1 from about 800 feet away. As for the shuttles, I realized only last year that crew was right over my head fighting for their lives and nobody down here knew until we heard about the crash in Texas and saw the track as it re-entered. Beyond sad.
@@phantomf4747 Ah Phantom... you and I would get along well!
Great video! Well done. I attended UTA in Arlington, TX when this happened. The shuttle debris lit up our morning sky that day. Later, UTA dedicated a new dorm to Kalpana Chawla, an alumnus and Columbia crew member.
I was living in Arlinton, Texas. I remember it was a very early Sunday morning. I was still semi-asleep because I could hear a continuous deep rumbling sound. I first thought it was a loud 18 wheeler from I-20. But it was strange in my mind that the rumbling kept going on and on for an unusually long time.
When i got to church everyone was talking about the shuttle crashing. That was the sound I had heard. To long, loud rumbling as it was disintigrating.😢
Captain Dave Brown was my first flight surgeon in my first Navy squadron. Then went to pilot training and flew A-6 tests. Amazing officer, Dr, human being. 😢
This, as all of your productions, is excellent.
Perhaps, with the benefit of hindsight, this tragedy may have been avoided ... who am I to judge ... I just hope that the astronauts' demise was so quick that they were not in a position to think about it!! R.I.P. to them all.
Your videos are always good and I love the introductory "THIS" that has become, in my opinion, your trade mark. Well done sir!!
It could have been avoided. I believe Mini Air Crash Investigation did a video about the foam and how it almost caused Atlantis the same fate...in 1989, 14 years before Columbia. Atlantis lost tiles as well due to a foam insulation strike. It hit the underside of Atlantis and did a huge amount of damage. They did lose a tile, but it looks like the area was used for an L-band antenna and was reinforced with a steel plate.
Here's the video from two years ago: ua-cam.com/video/VVMdJkFJEPA/v-deo.html
This is one of the reasons I do like this channel. Mini Air Crash Investigations digs these sort of things up and presents them to us in a clear, non-biased presentation. I will say, though. The video in the link really pissed me off when I saw it...not because of the presentation (that was excellent as it always is), but because NASA knew about this foam problem 14 years prior and did nothing about it.
They would have felt the pitch-up and the increased deceleration due to drag as their ballistic number rapidly decreased, they would have felt the oscillations of the flat spin, so they would have known they were in desperate trouble. The pilot and commander certainly knew, but as the consummate professionals they were, they focused on the task of trying to save the situation by trying to re-start the APUs--but they would have known the chances of recovering such a fragile vehicle from a total hydraulics failure/LOC before they ever flew the thing. Hopefully the rest of the crew was still in disbelief when the pressure vessel cracked and the altitude mercifully killed them.
Great video @MiniAirCrashInvestigation, interesting, informative and heart-breaking. God speed to these brave souls.
Well done video. Respectful. You included enough technical information to be interesting and accurate. You spoke in a simple enough language to be understood by all. Thank you.
In addition to that RCS status display light that would have shown the jet firings trying to keep up with the attitude error, there was a Caution and Warning annunciator panel called the GAX display that would have displayed an "FCS SAT" light reflecting the Flight Control System Saturation as it was trying to correct. Not sure if that wound up in the MEDS cockpit.
LINDA HAM
Let's also take time to blame and shame who is responsible for all this. Nasa management who disregarded engineers warnings and in particular Linda Ham (upper management) who did less than nothing, she stopped the internal investigation about the debris when shuttle was still in space. She is to blame for this. And that HAS to be said.
Let me guess. She was the first female (insert whatever). Then all the fake hypocrites clap.
Wow!!
All the while i was watching this video i just couldnt stop thinking about the crew. So thank you for acknowledging them in the final part of your talk.
Both Columbia and Challenger disasters had the cabin completely separate but no way to have the cabin survive. Do you think they will be able to design a crew cabin that if it got separated due to something like what happened to Columbia or Challenger it would be able to survive and come down to earth safely? This is an excellent video.
STS 1 had ACES ejection seats during initial test flights they were removed when the shuttles started orbit ops. There were plans to have the crew cabin used as a lifeboat and seperate from the spacecraft if something happened deemed to be 'catastrophic leading to loss of spacecraft and crew' However it was deemed too expensive, complex and too mass intensive to implement.
@@XENONPLASMA how can you put a price tag on life. I hope they rectify that problem with the new ones they are building. Thank you so much for the information.
They should have built-in a separate RCS and parachute system for the crew cabin. We had the technology and capability to have done that back then
@@laurieconway7694 "how can you put a price tag on life" All of us do it, all the time. Pay for a pricey separate seat for an infant on an airliner? Most people don't, if they have the "lap" option. And so on.
Recoverable crew compartments are tough to make work. A few military aircraft have tried it with mixed results in operation, but even those didn't have to deal with a relatively huge pressurized volume and a high-hypersonic top end of the performance envelope. A separable/relatively small crew capsule (edit: parachute-recovered) + autoland winged section would have probably been what it took to achieve reliable crew recovery... and I hadn't even thought of that until just now.
FWIW, there was originally $300+ million for an "escape rocket" in the 5.5B authorized for the STS program. Contrary to what is often said on the internet, that didn't go away as a result of congressional budget cuts. Congress had authorized the full amount NASA asked for, and Nixon approved the largest of the three shuttle options put forward. Rather, the NASA program manager moved it into the contingency budget, having seen even a few months after go-ahead that cost estimates to completion were going up fast (though still nothing like the overruns actually experienced in the years ahead).
@@Kyle-gb9dq What PARACHUTE is going to survive the 2800 degrees F that destroyed the Shuttle?
Just wanted to say you did a beautiful job on this presentation. Thanks for doing this. Its a wonderful tribute!!
There was live news just before reentry , that a circular spin type of reentry was contemplated because it was already known that damage was done on the left rear wing. There is a lot that did not go public.
I remember that day very well. I was sitting in a barber chair getting a haircut when the news came on the tv. My barber and I were in total shock. How could this happen after the lessons learned from the Challenger disaster? I had to fight back tears as I realized all on board perished in the breakup. Thank you for the concise explanation of the accident. RIP to the brave astronauts of Columbia.
Thank you for all the information 🙏I've always wondered why they would not say what was happening and what the Crew were going through thinking to myself that they new the hole time they were going to die thanks for all your hard work in finding out what really happened I know u have filled alot of peoples minds with Pease knowing what went on the last few mins !!
Excuse me for a second question but I wanted to elaborate on something. I used the term rocket because a jet uses atmospheric air to fire or burn, a rocket either burns by means of a hypergolic fuel or by supplying oxygen to the combustion chamber. The property of matter by which it remains in uniform motion unless acted upon by external forces ETC. Rockets, Flaps, Rudder etc etc
Excellent presentation to say the least. Lots of information I never heard previously. I’ve often wondered why the crew cabin wasn’t connected by its own parachute?? Maybe 14 more (?) astronauts might still be alive.
To @marklivingstone3710 I responded: The rail was an escape device to be used in case a problem was detected before launch or after engines were fired. Once the shuttle left the pad all bets were off. A parachute system for the cabin area, as mentioned by @njjeff201 two months ago, might have worked for Challenger because of its low altitude and speed at break-up. But for Columbia there was nothing that could have been done. No human being could survive the forces exerted at Mach 15 even in an escape capsule that is tumbling, and the parachutes would be destroyed at deployment because of the external forces and heat. Their only chance of survival would have been before re-entry but NASA bureaucrats claim they didn't have the resources available to launch a rescue mission, translation money/will.
This is a superb video and you did an excellent job narriating and giving comentary. Well done and kudos !!
Such a detailed, comprehensive presentation and analysis of the Columbia shuttle disaster. Thank you.
Great presentation ! i was on one of the firefighter crews assisting with the recovering of the shuttle. We worked side by side with NASA personnel very grueling and tedious work for 2 weeks ,😢 RIP 🙏 the crew of Columbia and the helicopter members u were killed 🙏...