ATHEISM in Medieval Islam. Freethinkers of the Caliphate. Al-Razi, Rawandi, Maarri, Khayyam, Nuwas

Based on The Cambridge History of Atheism, this review examines freethinkers in medieval Islam. During the 9th to 12th centuries, not only did science thrive, but religious skepticism also flourished in the Abbasid Caliphate, particularly in Baghdad. Prominent scholars and poets of that era openly criticized religious beliefs and practices.
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Bibliography / Recommended readings:
Stroumsa, S. 1999. Freethinkers of Medieval Islam: Ibn al Rawandı, Abu Bakr al Razı, and Their Impact on Islamic Thought. Leiden: Brill.
The Cambridge History of Atheism edited by Stephen Bullivant & Michael Ruse. Cambridge University Press (2021).
Stephens, Mitchell. 2014. Imagine There's No Heaven: How Atheism Helped Create the Modern World. St. Martin's Press
Whitaker, Brian. 2014. Arabs Without God: Atheism and freedom of belief in the Middle East.
AbuSulayman AbdulHamid. 2013. Apostates, Islam & Freedom of Faith. Change of Conviction VS Change of Allegiance. International Institute of Islamic Thought.
Cottee, Simon. 2015. The Apostates: When Muslims Leave Islam.
Eller Jack David. 2010. Atheism and Secularity in the Arab World. In Atheism and Secularity. Edited by Phil Zuckerman. Praeger Perspectives. Volume 2.
Shahab Ahmed, What is Islam? The Importance of Being Islamic (Princeton University Press, 2016)
Kraus, Paul. 1934. ‘Beiträge zur islamischen Ketzergeschichte: Das Kitab al zumurrud des Ibn al Rawandı’. Rivista degli studi orientali
Hecht, Jennifer Michael (2003). Doubt: A History: The Great Doubters and Their Legacy of Innovation from Socrates and Jesus to Thomas Jefferson and Emily Dickinson. Harper San Francisco.
Lamptey, Jerusha Tanner. 2014. Never Wholly Other: A Muslima Theology of Religious Pluralism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Al-Razi
Al-Rawandi
Abu Nuwas
Al-Maarri
Abu Isa al-Warraq
Omar Khayyam