Kombucha Basics: Carbonation
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- Опубліковано 22 сер 2024
- 0:17 - What makes good carbonation
0:50 - Carbonation tips
1:00 - Yeast’s role in carbonation
1:22 - Why fruit puree/juice is better than fruit chunks
2:06 - Bottle tips
3:13 - Why I don’t burp bottles
3:58 - Kegging kombucha
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Thnks for the tip of stirring the fermented vessel before bottling. Helps a lot
Thank you very much for all of the detailed information on Kombucha Brewing. I'm on my third batch, first batch was too sweet and flat. second batch still flat. I'll try again to get good carbonation, I think it was because I didn't stir before I bottled.
Thank you so much for your right to business informative and very easy to follow videos. I looked through many other youtube bloggers that gave advice on how to do your kombucha for the first time and all of them were super long and hard to actually follow. My kombucha is almost ready to bottle for the first time. Thank you!
Thank you so much for these videos! You have helped me tremendously. You are very professional and experienced, I trust every word you say!
Temperature is also a very important factor to make carbonation. The kombucha needs to be around 75 F. If it is too little then it won't carbonate well. Try using a heating mat and blanket for the kombucha.
My apartment is around 22 or so Celsius, so approx 70 to 72 F. I have no issue getting great carbonation in my F2 bottles. I sit my bottles about 4 days, and add approx. 1/4 cup of juice or 2 tbsp. Syrup to my 16 oz bottles.
My first batch of starter tea turned out great, although it took quite a bit longer than I expected for it to get tangy. But it has been in 2nd fermentation for over a week now, and none of the bottles are carbonating. I used the ring-neck bottles I already had, but I'm thinking that the original caps may not be holding in the CO2. I transferred two of those bottles to swing-top bottles and waited another couple of days and still no carbonation!!! In the summer, I keep my house around 74 F during the day. I'm going to try placing the bottles on a seed starter mat (it gets around 85 F only). Hopefully that will jump-start the carbonation process. I am dying to taste them because they smell AMAZING.I just really want them to be carbonated.
These are some good-quality and informative videos! Like a pro. Thank you :)
Your tips helped me finally get some good carbonation going. As a beginner, I was being overly cautious with burping bottles every 1-2 days. Now I don't burp at all, put the bottles (solid, safe bottles) in the fridge after 3-4 days and I'm getting good fizz.
Andrew Roberts Oh I’m so glad to hear that!
I like your channel great vids and to the point. I read organic non radiated ginger has natural yeast culture on its skin that helps. I leave the skin on mine and my ginger flavoured ones are ready to blow in 2 or 3 days!
I love your videos. You explain everything really well and your voice is easy to listen to. I am so glad that I discovered your youtube videos. Thanks.
Just watched all your videos. Thank you, you are an excellent teacher. I found out a few things i was doing wrong. At least now I can come here and rewatch a video to make sure I'm doing it right.
Very helpful! My second ferment was tasty but did not get bubbly and I think its because I did not stir the first batch.
I LOVE THIS SO MUCH! thank you for being here on UA-cam!
if you need to burp your bottles then you need to reduce your fermentation time or reduce fermentation sugars imo
Bad advice about carbonation. I had two bottles exploded following this guide.
A bit of set up. It's summer here around 20-30celcius. I put kombucha near a window, so that at evening sun goes directly at bottles. I mix it with 100% juices.
1. I noticed that at summer you usually need only 1-2 days for second ferment, depending on the heat. Probably will be different at winter though.
2. At least once a day you need to open them up to prevent too much carbon build up. if it's hotter than 25-30 degrees i open them two or even three times a day.
3. I noticed that pineapple juice ferments quicker that any other juices i used, so be aware.
1st explosion happened when i left pineapple kombucha for 2.5days, and than put in the fridge to chill, after 10 minutes it exploded
2nd explosion happened in the fridge after 1day of fermentation (was a hot day)
I think it is because in the fridge i store my kombucha sideways, and the bottom portion of the juice traces, mixes with the top, thus creating even more pressure.
Solution ALWAYS open up kombucha before leaving in the fridge, especially if you store it sideways. After open up kombucha before leaving in the fridge, i even flip the bottle upside down, just to make sure to mix the top to the bottom, open it again, to release access pressure, and than put it in the fridge.
Trust me, it is still be a well carbonated kombucha afterwards.
After a couple of weeks, you will know how carbonation should look for the best results. But for safety, i recommend not keeping kombucha for 3days, without open it store it in the fridge.
Happy Brewing.
What kind if bottles are you using?
I do my second fermentation at around 21 to 22 Celsius and it takes 4 days...it's never that carbonated to be explosive...it foams up if it's opened before being refrigerated, but is just lightly bubbly once it's chilled. I've never burped bottles during F2. I use good quality flip top bottles and also reuse GTs kombucha bottles.
Shaking the bottles will make them more foamy, so I only gently flip the bottle a couple of times to redistribute flavourings in the bottle before enjoying. Hope this helps.
I don't need to risk it :) Dunno why, maybe the scoby, maybe the natural juices i use, tea, bottles, i don't know.
All i know is After 24 hours in direct sunlight, near a window has enough carbonation for taste, and no risk. I don't even add any additional sugar now.
I tried cheaper juices, and syrups previously, but didn't get that fast carbonation in the past though. Or if i add only sugar in the second fermentation. The ones i use now, seem to carbonate much, much faster, so i assume it must be the juice i use.
@@skroblas5411 yeah, I always keep my bottles put of direct sunlight. It's a constant room temperature in the shade. Maybe that's the cause? Anyway, you di what works for you, and glad you found a mess free method 👍
@@skroblas5411 oh and it sounds like you have a very active scoby....nothing wrong with it...its a good thing...
I'm actually fasinated at the look fo tehf izzz gif I was lost in your words and was messmerized by the animation lol
The quality of your information is outstanding. You really need to be doing on-line Kombucha "masterclasses."
I love you Kombucha Lady 💗
Oiy! Hopefully I figured it out. My first ferment I've been filtering through cheesecloth before bottling it for the second ferment. This is probably my problem! I don't think I did that with my first batch which was absolutely perfection. Thanks for the tips.
Thank you so much, you help me a lot. Love from Brazil!
Ok , i watched all your videos ... And I absolutly loved them . Now i know everything about kombucha i would like to know everything about kéfir too ! Do you think that one day you're going to make some videos about kefir ?
I've made kefir in the past, but just wasn't as into the process or the taste as much as I've enjoyed kombucha, so I likely won't make videos on kefir. But you never know! I'm open to changing my mind one day :)
Hey where did you go? I just discovered your videos and am loving the content...but there's been none made for like a year...Are you coming back? You do a really good job with information presentation and are very pleasant to watch and easy to listen to. Hoping to see more in the future. -Jess
Wayne & Jessica Thompson More vids coming later this year!
Yay! Thank you!
@@YouBrewKombucha I am glad. I am learning a lot from your videos!
Before my last time I carbonation my kombucha ,I used burping!And I got some alot of buble(gases) in my bottle.I worry have exclused and broken my bottle!
And now I have tips for bottling (carbonation) to make frizzy.
I make my 2 fermention in the canning(wide vessel) with flavour like cut fruit or blander juice and then string (juice/blander of fruit) to decres raw of bland friut in your bottling.Cause a lot of raw making more carbonation(make more buble /gases)!
It's dengerous,It will make exclused!
Sorry,I am sorry not string!but stright(filtering ).It 's like used 3 fermention.I am sorry for my mistake to write !
Hello, thanks to you I have learned a lot of making Kombucha. My first 3 batches went really well. However for this batch something strange happened where my bottles were very fizzy and overflowed when opened, however my actual Kombucha beverage tasted flat. I used same scoby, same method as before. Please if anyone can let me know why this occurs I would appreciate it.
A GREAT way to get some nice carbonation in your kombucha is to add a 1/2 teaspoon of sugar to the bottle after pouring in the kombucha to your airtight container. [Be sure to stir your kombucha to mix up the yeast from the bottom--VERY IMPORTANT--before bottling]. Be careful however as this WILL induce the yeast into a feeding frenzy and give off carbonation [this method is used in the carbonation process of champagne]. Seal up your container quickly and store at ambient temperature for two (2) days. This process will produce a lot of carbonation in your bottle and make your kombucha slightly alcoholic. [If I get to estimating a ABV--I have no equipment to measure an ABV--I say it's under 1%. I would have to drink a lot to feel even a buzz]. Then refrigerate to stop further carbonation. If I remember right from biology class, if you get to adding a bit more sugar to this, it will produce more of an alcohol content. I think more sugar, more alcohol.
It's a specific wild yeast and bacteria that only will do to a certain amount of alcohol. So adding lots of sugar will increase to just a certain amount, 2-4 % alcohol. You need a stronger yeast like they use for wine and bear to achieve higher alcohol content. Even using a bread yeast will give you a decent 7% ish brew...
Great video series, well done! I have made a few batches with success. I am having trouble with keeping the carbonation in the liquid. After F2, it is like a volcano science fair project. Even when cold, I have to open slowly over a period of 10 minutes so not to get blow back. Once I release the pressure, it seems to go flat in the liquid. I seem to be getting plenty of pressure but it does stay in the liquid when poured. Any suggestions?
How long do you F2? You may just need to reduce the amount of time you second ferment in the bottle. Every culture is different, so the 2-3 day guideline may not apply to you -- especially if you live in a warm climate. Some folks get carbonation in half a day! So you may just have to find the approximate F2 length that's perfect for your kombucha culture and your environment. :)
I had this problem in my last batch. I tried to open it to serve people and it would not stop bubbling over. So I tried releasing some from another bottle, and the same. In the end, all my kombucha lost all it's carbonation so I tried leaving them out again in room temperature for a couple more days to re-carbonate.
I enjoyed this UA-cam. You are the Kombucha master!
Thanks, Kombucha goddess!
Love this!
Very short and concise explanation, unlike the others lengthy one with unnecessary display of sophisticated equipments which make it tedious for the watcher .
Tks pepper and keep it up.
I would still add that you talk too quickly for non English speakers. The resumes of the demonstration help a lot though !
Anand from Mauritius
She's not speaking quickly. I believe you can use closed captions in your language.
Can we brew kombuchs with 7-8 layers of scoby,or scoby hotel need different recipe for brewing kombucha
Hi! I love your channel! I am wondering if there is a way to get good carbonation without adding fruit flavorings. I love how my kombucha tastes without adding flavor, but I crave the bubbles!!
hanemroz Hi there! If you go to www.youbrewkombucha.com/carbonation and scroll all the way down, I have a section that talks about getting fizz w/o flavoring. The key is just adding more sugar for the yeast to eat, but each scoby is different so you’ll have to do some experimenting to see how much sugar you need to add to your bottles in F2 and how long you need to ferment them at room temp to build up a good balance of fizz without it getting too sour. Hope that helps!
You're a kombucha angel! Thanks so much, I'll try it out next batch!
Is there a way to carbonate the kombucha without adding flavor?
Hi YBK!
Help? 1st time brewer, made 4 gallons of kombucha. 1st gal was 1 c sugar. As I progressed so did my sugar. Imagine, gallon # 4 was mayb 3 c sugar. 🤪 let ferment from Thur - Thur but still sweet n not done, let go till Sunday, perfect. (mistake #1) I used fruit pieces. Got 4 (6pks) of rubber stop bottles. 1st 5 (1 was broken) bottles were cherrys (about 6-8 cherrys), next 6 were strawberries, then next 6, I blended watermelon n strawberrys, next 6 were blueberry strawberry’s n watermelon, got 12 plastic screw on 12 oz bottles n 6 were plain n 6 was pineapple. Let those ferment from sun to Wednesday. I tested some on Tuesday, they were good then so I put the rest in the fridge. I think they are perfect!! I am a huge carbonated drinking junk (trying life style change 🤔)
This is where I need help... have issues.
They have good carb, but too much! Need to pop open in sink, but loose half my bottle in fizz 🧐
What did I do wrong....?
Thank you in advance 🌹💜🌹
You may be second-fermenting it too long --- try putting it in the fridge after just 1 or 2 days fermenting in the bottle and see if that helps. You may just need to adjust the timeline to fit your cultures and the average temperature where you live. The warmer it is, the faster it'll ferment and build bubbles. Sometimes in the summer, I only have to bottle-ferment for a day or so before moving to the fridge. :) So you'll just have to experiment and adjust with your brews
You Brew Kombucha so is there a happy fix for the ones I already made? I dread opening them. It pops crazy, I now need to keep my hand pressed firmly on cap to allow gas to escape slowly, while keeping or trying to keep most of my kombucha in the bottle. I luv it n all the fizz, but dread the expected pop n fizz. 😳 thanks again 🤙🏽
Have you checked out this video yet? www.youbrewkombucha.com/minimize-mess :)
holy moly. this has only been up for a month or so and you're almost at 400 aahh. -brina
Have you tried reducing your pureed fruit before your second fermentation?
Morgan Riley I haven’t! But you certainly can! That’s a great idea.
@@YouBrewKombucha My fav is grape!
My first batch was under fizzy. My second batch was over fizzy. How do I prevent that? Any takers?
Great videos! How does altitude effect F1 and F2. I live at 7800'. I am not getting strong carbonation. But I do get some nice little bubbles like good champagne but I'd like more. Any adjustments needed for altitude? Keep up the good work!
Do i have to use fruit can i just have plain kombucha do i need to add sugar to it to replace the fruit
No need to use fruit if you don't want to! But yes, in general you do need to add a bit of extra sugar during 2nd fermentation to re-activate the yeasts, give them some new sugar to eat and get it bubbly. :) I recommend starting with 1/2 - 1 tsp per 16 oz. bottle
I’ve been getting great carbonation when using fruit pieces or purées. However, my favourite flavour of kombucha is ginger lemon and I’m really struggling with getting the same level of carbonation i get from my fruit flavoured ones. I add sugar during second fermentation, along with some grated ginger and lemon rinds. I let it sit in 2nd ferment for 2-3 day’s. Sometimes it gets fizzy, but once i put it in the fridge it seems to die. Any suggestions?
I did Orange juice + mango puree but after 3 days there is no carbonation :(, does it take more time?
Do you refrigerate your bottles or let them outside for the second fermentation.
A question about storage, is there any way to store kombucha after the second fermentation outside the fridge. so away to stop the fermentation and then store outside the fridge.
I say you'll have to pasteurize the kombucha by boiling the bottles.
Tks !
my first try at kombucha went well 1st & 2nd fermentation did as you said it should. 2nd try 1st fermentation went to plan 2nd how ever did not produce any carbonation at all even after adding extra 1/2 tsp sugar per bottle & i found in the bottle a scoby forming (2nd fermentation scoby) but Did not carbonate at all any ideas why????
Is there a way to prevent all the gritty yeast sediment from developing in the bottom of the bottle?
If I am not using fruit to flavor the kombucha, when and how much sugar should I add for the second fermentation.
Jack Wall I cover that here (scroll down to the very bottom of the page) www.youbrewkombucha.com/carbonation :)
Howdy Angelica. You're husband does a great job with lighting, editing, and camera operation. Does he produce any other work I can view online?
Gaff Gripman Thanks! You can find some of his work at www.seewhatryankellydoes.com 😊
You Brew Kombucha great thanks
You Brew Kombucha just watched your husband’s Murder Files..... hysterical.
For some reason I didn’t have good carbonation until I used golden caster sugar which I now know isn’t good to use as it’s harder for the yeast to break down but after I let that brew for about twice as long as I usually would with white sugar my combucha was much more carbonated. I don’t know if this is because more of the yeast that carbonates survived and some other yeast died because it wasn’t as good at breaking down the golden sugar? But I dunno maybe it’s worth a try to do once or twice if your SCOBY doesn’t make bubbly kombucha
I dont even use a Scoby ... I still get the carbonation... I mean, I know the things are doing their business, cause I can create very vinegary tea in just a day or two, if I put the vessel in the closet with my water heater ... Feels so good when it hits the stomach, just like store bought stuff ... am I missing out? I understand the scoby is not necessary, from what I've read.
I used to do sour dough bread the same way.
Do you know how to avoid over-carbonated bottle?
i usually bottle a huge amount of kombucha sealing with good crown cap
same amount of sugar for each bottle.
the bottles i've opened after 1 week/10 days were perfect.
after that they where over carbonated and i made a mess when i've opened them.
does exist a trick for "stop" second fermentation at the right moment?
thank you for help
Pao Lo refrigeration “stops” or greatly slows down fermentation. So I refrigerate once the bottles are perfectly carbonated. Do you refrigerate yours and still find them over-carbonated? If so, you may just need to refrigerate them sooner.
I just made my first batch of flavored (2nd fermentation) kombucha and my concern is the spill over I am getting when I open the bottles and losing a lot of the kombucha during this over spill. Is there a way to prevent the OVER spilling that I am getting. Other than that, my husband and I have been enjoying our kombucha. OH, and that is after I have put it in the fridge to chill for a few days before we even open a bottle!
Hey,
thx for the really good videos you do !!
I was wandering if we force carbonate kombucha, after F1 how long time do we need to let the fruit and the kombucha infuse together before we can force carbonate ? thank you very much for your tips !
have a good day
I'd say let it sit in the kombucha until you think the flavor has fully extracted into the liquid to your liking. It really depends on the strength and amount of fruit used, so I always just recommend going with your taste buds as the final determiner. :)
@@YouBrewKombucha thx for the answer :)
Hey, I've read an article saying that the sugar added to the second fermentation won't be consumed by the yeast, but now you say the opposite. I can eat very low sugar, so I am wondering if it is safe adding the fruit puree and don't have my kombucha loaded up with sugar once it is done with the carbonation process.
Do you have tips for preserving carbonation when pouring a batch into bottles? I often loose a lot of the fizz when moving kombucha from the brewing vessel into the 2nd fermentation bottles.
Most of the carbonation happens in the second fermentation itself, not the first. So I wouldn’t care about how much fizz i lose since the fizzing forms in the sealed bottles in the second phase
@@bigira Not entirely true. My batches come out after about 10 days with a substantial amount of fizz. The second fermentation process for me is more about burning off a bit more of the sugars, and I notice a substantial loss of fizz in the short term until it builds back up again during the second process. So yeah, I would like to preserver the initial fizz instead of loose it.
What is “second fermentation” also is it fresh fruit for a purée? My kombucha is flat and it has been fermenting for a week. How do I get carbonation? Newbie here. Please helo
Is stirring your kombucha before bottling also recommended when you have a continuous brewer with a spout?
yes, especially with a CB vessel! Those in particular are prone to yeast concentration down at the bottom of the vessel, so it's always good to stir.
i followed you instructions to the tee and still having trouble with the carbonation any ideas on what im doing wrong
Thank you very much for all the great tips, I'm getting good carbonation now. When starting a new batch how many scobys can you use? Is more than 1 okay?
More than 1 is OK, but it's really the amount of starter tea that matters more than SCOBY amount/size. :)
@@YouBrewKombucha thank you very much for responding, I've been using 2 cups of starter tea, some of the starter comes from my hotel. I'm so thankful I found your video's, Kombucha on Maui can be very expensive if you want it every day.
If I simply add flavoring and pop the booch into the fridge then will that minimize carbonation? I want to try to minimize bubbliness
Adam Kahn yup!
how do i make fizzy kombucha without flavours?
@@feddie1172 during six months i realised you just have to pour kombucha in air tight bottles and leave it for 1-2 days. it willl be fuzzy:)
I'm doing all these things and still not getting good carbonation :( Maybe the room was possibly too cold in my last batch bc it was brewing during a cold spell.
Great video! How long do you bottle it for?
www.youbrewkombucha.com/guide-to-2nd-fermentation
What kind of yeasts are best for the brew? Can i use some yeast for bread?
Its a scoby thats creates yeast you dont use it for anything else
I have an important question. I tried to do a first fermentation twice. The first time it didn't brew, it wasn't fuzzy or acidic. No matter how long I left it was super sweet. So I tried a second time and I thought it was going well but it grew mold on the surface.
So I'm trying a third time. I have my two scobies, the one someone gave it to me and the second one it grew up on my "first first fermentation".
I don't have started tea from my kombucha and they don't sell kombucha on stores in here. Can I use vinager?
I don't know what I'm doing wrong and I start to getting very upset..
If you don't have starter tea, that's likely the problem. In this case, I would recommend trying a batch with a scoby (one that hasn't gotten moldy) + enough distilled white vinegar to bring the pH down below 4. Hope that helps!
You Brew Kombucha did you just tell him to use vinegar!? I thought you previously said that wasn’t a good thing to do.
Do you have to use organic fruit?
Nope, you can use whatever fruit you like
For the first ferment why can't you use plastic that is BPA free?
You see vinegar, wines, spirits & a host of beverages shipped ,stored in plastic.
Aluminum beverage cans , most have a lite coating of a plastic inside.
Is it really gonna extract that much from the plastic & can you prove it?
It never gets above 80 degrees Fahrenheit , so can it really leach that much?
Yes plastic in a microwave is a totally different issue.
Please explain with facts not hear say. Thank-You
I'm doing some experiments using BPA-free plastic containers that are specifically designed to be safe for fermenting low-pH beverages. So I'll report back with my findings on that. But the truth of the matter is that there's not a lot of transparency out there (or even a lot of clear scientific information) that's trustworthy across the board about all types of plastics. There are so many manufacturers and brands of plastic materials that are not up-front about the materials and leaching capabilities of what's in their products. And on top of that -- different foods have different pH levels, so just because one type of plastic is (allegedly) safe for certain beverages, that doesn't mean it's safe for fermenting beverages that continue to acidify. I actually stay away from purchasing vinegars that are in plastic containers for that same reason. Most *quality* vinegar makers bottle in glass.
Because of that -- my personal preference is to advise home brewers to go with the least risky option possible: food-safe glass. There's a lot of info online about this, and honestly anyone can find anything to prove/disprove their own beliefs about things, but here's a quick read if you're interested: www.npr.org/2011/03/02/134196209/study-most-plastics-leach-hormone-like-chemicals.
Ultimately, the decision is yours. I try to avoid plastic usage as much as possible, because for my lifestyle, it's the easiest, most sustainable and less potentially risky option. But if you want to use plastic, and you've evaluated your own lifestyle and research, that's totally fine too. If you have specific brands/recommendations of plastic vessels that work for you, please send them my way. Like I said, I'm working on doing more research on this myself too. Trust me, I try to provide science-based recommendations as much as possible -- my goal is to never just rely on "hear-say."
You Brew Kombucha Thank- you so very much ! You've giving a honest & sincere answer . I've watched other Brewers on my quest and by far your the easiest to understand. Your in depth answer shows you have integrity ,maturity , with a passion and desire to learn more as to share with us the viewers your beliefs and true findings.
I grew up where everything came bottled in glass. Milk was one of the first product I seen in plastic .
Thank-You again! You've gained much respect from a old man!
سلام خیلی خوشگلی ممنون از آموزشتان
My kombucha tastes like wine! I don't want wine !! How do I fix that?
I'd be happy to send you a photo of my hand just after a plastic bottle exploded in it due to too much pressure, and not burping it. Maybe you don't have to burp your whole batch, but you should do it to at least one bottle to make sure the pressure is not too high.
Plastic bottle are they not supposed to be glass, sorry to hear about your hand
Any tips where to buy good bottles?
riccia888 Yep! I outline my tips here: www.youbrewkombucha.com/choosing-right-bottles-caps - hope that helps!
You Brew Kombucha thanks for the reply:) do i need to open my bootle before puting inside the fridge after my 2nd fermentation?
Not sure I understand your question -- do you mean "burping" your bottle before putting it into the fridge? I never open/burp my bottles during my 2nd fermentation process, since I'm familiar with my kombucha's specific fermentation timeline (you can read more about why I don't burp here: www.youbrewkombucha.com/why-im-anti-burp)
But after 2nd fermentation, I just move them all to the fridge and don't open them until I'm ready to drink. Hope that helps!
important facts in life No 1: Never take advice from a person who say things like " i never do things that dont 'sound' right,... or sound 'ICKY'..."
Fair point. Not my most compelling argument. My main point, though, was that it's ineffective and a waste of time compared to other, more effective, science-based methods of creating carbonation. But if you don't want to take any of my advice because one thing I said was lackluster, that's your choice. One of my "important facts in life" is not to throw the baby out with the bathwater, but hey, you may disagree with as well. No skin off my nose either way. :)
Try a warmer place
How about trying extra fruit
Good luck with your booch
Solid, concise info and very, very high vid production value. But between shots u r **fixing your hair**, leading to the rare "hair discontinuity" effect, after final editing. From shot to shot your hair is a kaleidoscope of change. The effect is jarring. But...I will watch ALL your vids, cuz like you, I'm nuts about Kombucha.
blondegaijin Thanks for sticking with me through the hair discontinuity.
I think your hair looks great and I'm grateful for your time! This is a really wonderful resource. I've been thinking about home brewing for a while and your videos have convinced me to go ahead and do it! Thanks for passing on your knowledge.