The Pugio: Combat Knife of a Roman Soldier
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- Опубліковано 28 тра 2024
- In ancient Rome the equipment of the Roman soldier - both the legionary and the auxilia - encompassed more than a gladius, scutum and body armour; strung from their side was a war dagger called the pugio. This weapon was first adopted as a foreign invention during the times of the Roman republic, but like so many things in the Roman army, the pugio evolved into a typically Roman piece of equipment during the times of the Roman empire.
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I've been obsessed with the Roman empire since I was a small child, but that's the first time I've actually seen such a good explanation for the use of the pugio, superb job .
Same
Roman and Greek History, Etc. (My Library)
If you're into “Roman” stuff Michael Curtis Ford's “Gods and Legions is the book to read. If you're into history I suggest you get Ammianus Marcellinus' History. The ass kicker here is that Marcellinus actually went to battle with Emperor Julian. The Loeb Classic is almost an adventure novel all by itself.
As far as Gladiators, a couple of “definitive” books are The Way of the Gladiator by Daniel P. Mannix and Spartacus by Howard Fast. Here are books from my library. Ass kickers every one.
Ammianus Marcellinus History Loeb Classical Library
The Battle for Gaul by Julius Caesar Illustrated edition by Anne & Peter Wiseman.
Caesar: The Civil War by Jane F. Gardner
Suetonius: The Twelve Caesars by Robert Graves
The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire by Edward Gibbon
The Way of the Gladiator by Daniel P. Mannix
Spartacus by Howard Fast
Julian by Gore Vidal
Gods and Legions by Michael Curtis Ford
The Ten Thousand by Michael Curtis Ford
The Sword of Attila by Michael Curtis Ford
The Fall of Rome by Michael Curtis Ford
The Last King by Michael Curtis Ford
Gates of Fire by Steven Pressfield
Tides of War by Steven Pressfield
The Virtues of War by Steven Pressfield
Last of the Amazons by Steven Pressfield
Thucydides: History of the Peloponesian War.
Alexander the Great by Paul Cartledge
The Spartans by Paul Cartledge
Eagle in the Snow by Wallace Breem
The Eagle and the Raven by Pauline Gedge
The Last Legionary: Life as a Roman Soldier in Britain AD 400 by Paul
Elliott
Gladiator: The Roman Fighter's (Unofficial) Manual by Philip Matyzak
Legionary: the Roman Soldier's Manual by Philip Matyszak
On Roman Military Matters (De Re Militari) by Flavius Vegetius Renatus
Marius had long ago showed us that the legionary has a weapon that is the bane of the civilized world, one more formidable than the dual-edged Roman short sword, more effective than the bronze-headed javelin, of greater defensive strength than the concave bronze-sheathed shields. It is a weapon in which the legionary is trained from his first day of induction and which he uses daily, in peacetime or in war, on the march or hunkered in camp under siege from flaming missiles. And upon their arrival at The miscyra, every able-bodied Roman immediately whipped out this most fearsome of all weapons:
The Legionary's shovel.
Before even breaking to rest or scouting for supplies, the Roman troops had unpacked their shovels and commenced digging, and the dirt flew, and the dust rose. In the space of an afternoon, a Roman camp for thirty thousand men had been constructed just beyond range of our catapults. Before dark it had been ringed on all sides with a trench twelve feet deep and three feet across, the dirt thrown up into an embankment ten feet high inside the ring. Topped with a thick palisade of sharpened stakes. Inside, four sturdy walls were constructed of felled trees, guarded by squat log towers twenty feet high, stationed every fifty feet and surmounted by bolt-hurling field catapults. Inside, a space of a full two hundred feet was left between the walls and the tent line, a distance calculated to prevent our missiles and burning arrows from reaching the tents. This space was occupied by prisoners, cattle, plunder and supplies. Within a few hours, the Romans had constructed a stronghold that would be the envy of a lifetime's work of many civilizations poorer then theirs. A fortress impregnable.
Yet this was not a permanent stronghold they had built. This was the Roman's usual daily campsite, Every day of a legionary's working life he would dig such a trench, construct such an embankment, hew trees, and build such palisade. All to be torched at sunrise, when the legions marched off to their next encampment. Javelins, when thrown, may miss their mark entirely. Shields may cave upon impact with a Scythian battle-ax; and a sword, though reliable at close quarters, still dulled, broke upon ribs. Or shivered if struck upon armor. But the shovel...the shovel was the legionary's best friend, his most faithful protector, the one weapon that allowed him to sleep soundly at night, behind his magnificent trenches and embankments. The shovel could stop a cavalry charge cold, stymie hordes of barbarians. Rome conquered not with its brutal leaders, not with the strength of its soldiers, not with the ingeniousness of its weapons...but with the most rustic, pigheaded, inglorious, gods-bedamned tool of them all...the shovel.
Michael Curtis Ford “The Last King”
@@larrysingleton2864wow. Admire your passion and effort put into this post. Still not sure about logistical reality of building fortified camp every afternoon to specs described above. Surely some of it must have been roman propaganda
@@Prosper661Good point. It reminds me of the "bias" that might be said of people like Josephus or Caesar in his book The Battle for Gaul. (And weren't a lot of these writings by Caesar and others political speeches?) But the Romans did build those forts, as can be seen in archaeology, and there's a good argument that the Roman soldier's primary weapon was one of "prevention"; The Legionary's shovel.
Also I seem to remember in the book The Battle for Gaul(?) Caesar's emphasis on keeping the soldiers busy.
Thanks for the response. Surprised you got through the censors. I get almost ZERO replies in comparison to the dozens and dozens of comments I submit.
Read the sources & you will realize that pugio is mentioned probably more then any other weapon.
Cuspis are likely the only thing mentioned more then the pugio/dagger as cuspis means both javelins & spears like verutum, pilum or soliferrum etcetera.
Scorpio's among all siege weaponry is mentioned extensively by the romans which no wonder when they are the equivalent role of the chain gun in ancient history as a ranged field weapon for surpassing consistent volley's. In a castra or high ground was hands down the best weapon that the romans possessed for it did not win the battle instantly but in a drawn out conflict decided the winner more often then not.
If I could only have 1 ranged weapon in an armies composition in the ancient era it would be a Scorpio like how in industrial warfare onward it would be a chain gun.
A Scorpio in it's time fulfilled 3 of the 4 roles in support fire.
suppression, or attacking infantry & damaging structures like facilities/fortifications.
Only thing a sorpio is no good for is (direct engagement) but you had melee infantry & other soldiers for that purpose in the past.
Funnily a chain gun fulfils 3 out of 4 role but differs as great at 'direct engagement' but pretty bad at damaging structures like forts-bunkers etcetera.
Mind you have field artillery guns for damaging structures as well as being the most harmful at attacking infantry though suppression or direct engagement it is useless if not on mass but that is really overwhelming fire rather then suppression or direct engagement.
Auto cannons are the only ranged system that can fulfil all 4 forms of supportive fire but of course still have limitations in some regards like weight & overheating let alone the cost of feeding them munitions as it is pricey.
The Romans were very ahead of their time in many regards as they basically all carried a combat knife with a supportive fire system while all wore helmets at the very least.
Till Industrial war became a thing Rome really was at the forefront in so very much.
The dagger was important in medieval & Renaissance warfare, so it's not surprising it was a serious weapon in the Roman military. One late-16th-century treatises mentions how pikers often lacked the space to use their swords effectively in the press of battle & had to employ their daggers. Roman formations may not have been as tight, but I suspect the same situations still came up from time to time.
What a great example indeed, it indeed demonstrates perfectly how even a relatively short thing like a sword can be too unwieldy in (super) close combat. Very interesting! Thanks for sharing :)
English archers in the middle ages used knives, to kill downed horsemen, who could not rise from the ground when in heavy armour.
@@EllieMaes-Grandad The idea of downed horsemen not being able to get back up is greatly exaggerated, unless they're exhausted, suffering from heat exhaustion or already wounded.
@@skaldlouiscyphre2453 yes you can do back flips with knight armor
You also need a weapon, in case you've fallen to the ground.
Really love this episode, never heard anyone else talk about Pugio so deeply. thank you.
Thank you, these kind of comments motivate us to continue our work.
maybe not too deeply senators like it probably too. ouch...
Excellent work. The extra flourishes in post-production are appreciated, but I think they are fine at the current quality. Don't fall into the trap of incorporating ever more time-consuming details post-production, as this quickly leads to burnout! If the videos remain like this going forward, we will all be plenty happy.
Agreed!
Agreed.
As someone who knows this field well… I agree!
Incredibly professional, entertaining and detailed historic channel about Roman militrary history, keep it up
Much appreciated Andy, the best is still to come:)
Very good!
@@renatoricci2010 best
It says a lot about how narrow visions of popular history can be that I never thought about the soldiers of the greatest empire of their era keeping something as simple and universal as KNIVES around before now.
Always interesting to draw parallels throughout history and just how little some things change. A Roman soldier had his gladius and pugio just as the soldiers of recent history have rifles and handguns. A Roman officer may own a decorated ivory handle pugio just as a high ranking officer in say WW2 may have owned an ivory gripped 1911. A status symbol that also acts as a backup.
😂 What self serving shite
Interesting- and a convincing set of arguments for why more pugio could have been used in the northern regions, and/or be more likely to be buried there. Also solid reasoning on the greater value of the pugio in defense against ambush- I admit I was familiar with all the tropes about the superiority of the gladius itself in close combat especially formation combat, over longer swords. Although it makes much sense, I hadn't really thought through that the gladius itself would be too long and awkward a weapon under many conditions.
Hello Random observer, we are glad you learned from our video, thanks for sharing your experience.
Sounds like the shorter swords or long knives that were shorter than other greeks' swords adopted by the Spartans for very closely packed presses between formations. In that context moving away from the gladius to a longer sword could be seen as moving from a sword that was a compromise in both close and more open formations to a longer sword for more open fighting and a long dagger for closely packed fighting.
Unlike some daggers, The pugios broad blade would clearly make good size wound. Interesting with combat blades like seax, bowie, dirk, baselard, kukris etc. Good video! Thanks👍
Once again a wonderful piece of work, glad to support.
Thanks Carde!
I just wanna say how your ancestors would are rolling in their graves right now seeing their future men wearing Roman armor! You guys make amazing content and I look forward to new videos every time.
Let them roll. Rome, despite being brutal like any other society of the time, brought at least some peace and lots of trade connections to southern and western Germany, so this is a perfect way to show our gratitude. ;D
To be fair didn't a lot of Germanic tribes in the what is now current-day Netherlands wear Roman armour too? Like the Batavians?
Wow ... I've learned about Roman Empire militaries these recent times, but it first time I found out details of Pugio. I'm really glad to watch this awesome video.
This channel is the best kept secret on UA-cam. Amazing work guys.
Keeping it a secret won't help us much though haha ;)
@@ImperiumRomanumYT Agreed we must share.
Given that the PUGIO is about the same blade size as the Spartan ZIPHOS, it does seem that when two Shield Walls crash , a shorter weapon is a very practical thing. Good video.
I absolutely love your style of telling Roman history and the amazing realistic scenes!
Thank you Milush, we are glad you like it:)
I love how you tackled the pugio. The thing of the pugio being used in replacement of the gladius was very interesting. I'm also surprised it was mainly for military use. I thought for sure that a notable number of citizens would carry it around for protection.
I suppose many citizens would have used household knives or hefty sticks for cost reasons. Or maybe it was simply unfashionable to carry a military knife -- considered pretentious, disrespectful, etc.
Great Episode! Never knew how vital the Pugio was in adapting to local Germanic fighting styles. Truly interesting and the application of how it was used otherwise was something I’d never head before. Props to everyone who worked on this episode!
Great video. The acting in full gear really makes it come alive. Your videos always sound like they are very well researched. Well done & thanks!
Cheers Ryan!
24.1 thousand subscribers.. that means every video should have 24.1 thousand well earned and deserved likes. This content is great and not as appreciated as it should be.
Thanks Jesse, we really hope to hit the 100K again, lets see how far we get!
@@ImperiumRomanumYT hear, hear
Yes that's exactly why I started supporting you via Patreon, great content!
Great to see you again Caspar:)
"Pugio gladius brevis est" is an excellent book on Roman pugios.
Love your guy's commitment to historically accurate reenactment and bringing light to lesser-known aspects of Roman history!
Roman and Greek History, Etc. (My Library)
If you're into “Roman” stuff Michael Curtis Ford's “Gods and Legions is the book to read. If you're into history I suggest you get Ammianus Marcellinus' History. The ass kicker here is that Marcellinus actually went to battle with Emperor Julian. The Loeb Classic is almost an adventure novel all by itself.
As far as Gladiators, a couple of “definitive” books are The Way of the Gladiator by Daniel P. Mannix and Spartacus by Howard Fast. Here are books from my library. Ass kickers every one.
Ammianus Marcellinus History Loeb Classical Library
The Battle for Gaul by Julius Caesar Illustrated edition by Anne & Peter Wiseman.
Caesar: The Civil War by Jane F. Gardner
Suetonius: The Twelve Caesars by Robert Graves
The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire by Edward Gibbon
The Way of the Gladiator by Daniel P. Mannix
Spartacus by Howard Fast
Julian by Gore Vidal
Gods and Legions by Michael Curtis Ford
The Ten Thousand by Michael Curtis Ford
The Sword of Attila by Michael Curtis Ford
The Fall of Rome by Michael Curtis Ford
The Last King by Michael Curtis Ford
Gates of Fire by Steven Pressfield
Tides of War by Steven Pressfield
The Virtues of War by Steven Pressfield
Last of the Amazons by Steven Pressfield
Thucydides: History of the Peloponesian War.
Alexander the Great by Paul Cartledge
The Spartans by Paul Cartledge
Eagle in the Snow by Wallace Breem
The Eagle and the Raven by Pauline Gedge
The Last Legionary: Life as a Roman Soldier in Britain AD 400 by Paul
Elliott
Gladiator: The Roman Fighter's (Unofficial) Manual by Philip Matyzak
Legionary: the Roman Soldier's Manual by Philip Matyszak
On Roman Military Matters (De Re Militari) by Flavius Vegetius Renatus
Marius had long ago showed us that the legionary has a weapon that is the bane of the civilized world, one more formidable than the dual-edged Roman short sword, more effective than the bronze-headed javelin, of greater defensive strength than the concave bronze-sheathed shields. It is a weapon in which the legionary is trained from his first day of induction and which he uses daily, in peacetime or in war, on the march or hunkered in camp under siege from flaming missiles. And upon their arrival at The miscyra, every able-bodied Roman immediately whipped out this most fearsome of all weapons:
The Legionary's shovel.
Before even breaking to rest or scouting for supplies, the Roman troops had unpacked their shovels and commenced digging, and the dirt flew, and the dust rose. In the space of an afternoon, a Roman camp for thirty thousand men had been constructed just beyond range of our catapults. Before dark it had been ringed on all sides with a trench twelve feet deep and three feet across, the dirt thrown up into an embankment ten feet high inside the ring. Topped with a thick palisade of sharpened stakes. Inside, four sturdy walls were constructed of felled trees, guarded by squat log towers twenty feet high, stationed every fifty feet and surmounted by bolt-hurling field catapults. Inside, a space of a full two hundred feet was left between the walls and the tent line, a distance calculated to prevent our missiles and burning arrows from reaching the tents. This space was occupied by prisoners, cattle, plunder and supplies. Within a few hours, the Romans had constructed a stronghold that would be the envy of a lifetime's work of many civilizations poorer then theirs. A fortress impregnable.
Yet this was not a permanent stronghold they had built. This was the Roman's usual daily campsite, Every day of a legionary's working life he would dig such a trench, construct such an embankment, hew trees, and build such palisade. All to be torched at sunrise, when the legions marched off to their next encampment. Javelins, when thrown, may miss their mark entirely. Shields may cave upon impact with a Scythian battle-ax; and a sword, though reliable at close quarters, still dulled, broke upon ribs. Or shivered if struck upon armor. But the shovel...the shovel was the legionary's best friend, his most faithful protector, the one weapon that allowed him to sleep soundly at night, behind his magnificent trenches and embankments. The shovel could stop a cavalry charge cold, stymie hordes of barbarians. Rome conquered not with its brutal leaders, not with the strength of its soldiers, not with the ingeniousness of its weapons...but with the most rustic, pigheaded, inglorious, gods-bedamned tool of them all...the shovel.
Michael Curtis Ford “The Last King”
Thanks for the awesome video once again :)
It's interesting to know that such a small weapon could be effective in combat. I would've guessed the moment an opponent sees that you are using such a tiny weapon, he'd try and keep his distance. But I am no expert on ancient combat.
Then again, in a way like it was recorded, where they got pierced when climbing onto the ramparts, might also show that it was more effective in that kind of combat, where the enemy climbing up might not have the ways to keep his distance if he wants to get into the camp. And a longer weapon might not be the most useful if you have limited space yourself.
Gives one a lot to think about. ^^
Great to see you again Jeremy! It was indeed highly practical in very close combat, like the situation on the ramparts. It was a secondary weapon, but a very effective one.
Love the content so far. Excited to see what else is coming in the pipeline. Thank you.
What a spectacular little documentary!
Thanks!
Stunning quality. And super informative, as always.
I can already tell this is-going to be one of my favorite historical channels on UA-cam.
Would be cool to see you level some old ruins with a trebuchet. You have my full support ;).
Jokes aside, great doc. again. Cant wait for the next one.
The work these guys put into their content is amazing. Way better than most produced documentaries about Rome and you can really tell it’s a passion project. Really hope they get the 75. 000 views!
A very interesting argument! I'm not savvy enough to weigh in myself, but I very much appreciate the high-quality production and excellent information offered.
That's the best look at the pugio I've ever seen
Astounding analysis! The work you do and the revolutionary methods you use with in person acting and time related equipment is absolutely riveting, and more like this needs to be done in this field.
Once again an awesome documantery. Thank you for such great and interesting videos!
Off to a good start. A well-done and well-researched video, delivered in an entertaining and engaging way.
Really interesting deep dive into the roman dagger. I like how your channel focuses on topics not covered by other history youtubers
I’d like to posit that the reason that pugio saw very little to no use further east may have been because of the cultural influence of the Greeks. Perhaps the reason that pugios were so uncommon was that a Greek or other eastern dagger may have been playing the role of the pugio.
Awesome video once again guys! I really like the detailed comparison between the three types of pugios. Can't wait for the next video; keep up the great work!
Cheers Yannick!
Came here from M.Laser, definitely impressed by your detailed, insightful content. Although I'm unable to financially support your work, I will share your videos widely. Would love to see you succeed, as I've seen other channels do. Much luck! 🍀
Love your energy, your commitment, and the passion you put into your recreation of Ancient Rome. Your realness will pay off and be rewarded with increasing subscribers. It will take some time, however, quality+ niche content is usually rewarded. Just keep doing what you’re doing. Thumbs up.
Remarkably professional, informative production. Absolutely evident that this is not only a labor of love but total commitment to produce a first rate documentary on the topic. Well done.
Great info. Looking forward to seeing your channel expand. An episode about the Siege of Masada onsite would be fantastic. Even today, that place is quite magnificent & sad.
Loving this channel and how you are approaching the topic. Going to try forge one of these war daggers
Amazing work Imperium Romanum! Can’t wait ‘till the next one.
Thanks Linda!
The leaf shape is very difficult to forge, but so iconic looking. I intend to make one this summer. Great video!
I'm glad to see there are historians out there who respectfully consider the truth in history rather than choosing to fabricate historical myth or historical allusion. I agree wholeheartedly with your theory that the Pugio was strictly a military weapon; its resemblance to a Sykes-Fairbairn is remarkable and I doubt that even the worst of mythmaking "historians" would dare call a Sykes-Fairbairn anything other than a strictly military weapon.
Thanks Goblin, we try our best and we are glad that you enjoyed it this much:)
Thank you, the depth of analysis on the Roman Pugio, is great.
Good research on one of the most used weapons in history. I'm sure it's use on the battle field decreased due to improvements, an use of armor. Nice video, thanks for your hard work.
Love your videos, really educational. Keep it up
Another superb video, mijne heren! Just popped over to Patreon and signed up. All best wishes for the future.
Thanks Etienne! Your support makes it possible for us to keep on going the way we are:)
It's another win. Daggers always a nice option for up close and personal barbarian slaying
Amazing. Thank you for making such quality content
Your video on the plug-in was very educational and entertaining. Very well produced and edited.
Excellent content! You provide a lot of information, which is presented beautifully.
I have to say that your videos are, in my opinion, better than a vast majority of documentaries on TV. The full gear helps here a lot, of course!
Keep doing the fine videos, will support you for sure :)
P.S. Nice integration of Rome I and especially Rome II music ;)
Very informative, originally I believed the pugio was more of a symbolic weapon of distinguishing a legionary from an auxiliary but nope I was wrong. Thank you.
Amazing work, as always! Loved the video. Incredibly informative, but not confusing (unlike many other videos from other channels can be).
Impressive video! Reenactments like this are under-appreciated, but are SO valuable to give a visual image for people to learn from. Great job!
Amazing content and production!
Thanks a lot Marco!
These videos are so well done and so insightful. The best Roman content on UA-cam.
Good job as always. Historical reinactments are such a gift to have. Rather than trying to imagine, experts give is a proper visual in a way we could experience and enjoy
Its so fulfilling that as History Channel, Nat Geo, A&E, TLC, etc have abandoned educational entertainment, people like you are picking up the baton. Thank you all so much
Fantastic …… you have opened up the Empire history , this makes life back then real .
Hello John, that is indeed our goal and we are glad you enjoy our videos!
Rare to find a roman history channel discussing something that hasn't been spoken about before
These videos are very high quality. It's not just the expert knowledge or the highly accurate equipment. Even the scenery is well chosen. For example, the field the blonde man is standing in at 6:52 was so beautiful that it gave me a strange feeling. It looks like a painting I half remember or a dream I have forgotten. I wonder where it was filmed? Anyway, great job all around.
Excellent presentation, I learned lots of new info concerning the pugio.
Your crew have very good quality reenactment kit, and you present very interesting info in a logical way.
Top notch channel.
Top quality content. I find there are some similarities with the 15th cent. cinquedea. Especially the handle. Were any of these discovered in the 15th century?
I love deep dives like this into single items, every little thing has such detailed histories. Absolutely love the visuals for this video too!
This quickly became a must-watch channel. Amazing work!
Great information and a great channel. I love your dedication to detail and also the way you debunk stereotypes about the Roman military! I’ve been showing your videos to my son to help give him a more accurate idea of what it meant to be a Roman soldier.
Thank you for the depth with which you explain and analyse this specific topic. You deserve to be in this platform for while, because Imperium Romanum is an extensive subject to talk about
Thank you for the subtitles, guys. It’s an overlooked part of videos like this.
I never liked the pugio until now. Thank you for the great video. I look forward to you covering other Roman Weaponry.
You guys create the most extraordinary content! Please keep it up. I'm always completely captivated by the videos you make. The way you guys dress up in the historical attire and address subjects that are often overlooked by others makes for unique, interesting videos. I know that this channel will explode once people start finding it. Please keep the content coming until they do.
I hope you keep posting more videos, I’ll stay tuned 😊
Yet another great short doc from this team. Impressed.
Love this channel. It is nice to see the little things in Roman history get covered. Keep up the awesome work, y'all.
Great video (as always) on a not so well known part of the roman equipment.
I would love to also see videos about the earlier roman army (republic/late republic) or late roman army.
Thank you for making great content over and over! Your dedication to history through re-enactment is really special!
Hope you continue this great work
This channel is an absolute gem. More power to the team behind it!
You guys showing real passion in these videos definitely more people need to see.
I think the humble dagger gets seriously underrated and underrepresented in historical warfare. It wasn't a secondary to the sword, in real battle, the dagger was more useful than the sword. If you are in a confined space or grappling with someone, you can't draw a sword. But a dagger is out instantly and ready to start poking. It was also extremely effective against armor. It could get into slits, and a very pointy one could go through mail.
In ww1, soldiers found this out in the trenches. Daggers, short sharpened spades and diy maces worked great in the tight spaces. Long sabers and bayonets were much less effective.
Great work thank you.
Loved the video! Hope to keep seeing more content of this kind!
Beautiful video, as always!
These are some of the best documentaries out there these days, please keep up the good work!
I loved this video! Great insight on the pugio. You guys make incredible videos!!
Great video as always
Excellent work as always
Awesome work. Keep it up guys!
Excellent video, supreme quality.
Great video like always!
Fantastic episode, keep up the good work!
Love your format, keep up the good work!
Amazing work
What a really fantastic experience with you. I’m happy to have this channel. You guys really give it 100% and I hope that this channel grows!
Very very good video , you can tell all the effort on this production. Keep up the good work guys 👍🏻
Its great how you are teaching history arround this channel keep up the great work.
Amazing video! Good job!
Amazing work, guys!
This is the high quality roman history so many people have been waiting for.